Comparative analysis of Russian and foreign studies of the phenomenon of loneliness

Nabieva Zarnigor Bakhriddinovna PhD in Psychology Postgraduate Student, Department of Psychology and Pedagogy, Peoples' Friendship University of Russia named after Patrice Lumumba 117198, Russia, Moscow region, Moscow, Zemlyanoy Val str., 27 zarnigorn@gmail.com

         Loneliness is becoming one of the most acute problems of the 21st century. Despite the fact that the generally accepted fact is the inseparability of a person from society and it is impossible to perceive him in isolation from others, the number of people experiencing loneliness is growing every year. According to statistics, today more than 30% of the adult population of the earth experience a feeling of loneliness ^[1].  

           The phenomenon is multifaceted and is studied from the standpoint of such sciences as psychology, philosophy, sociology, etc. ^[24]. The vastness of the phenomenon generates differences in theoretical approaches to its study and classification. At the same time, there is no unified understanding of the nature of this phenomenon in psychological science. Loneliness is characterized by a rather contradictory content and, as noted in most studies, is an insufficiently studied phenomenon in science. The lack of a unified concept and the sharp disputes that have been waged by scientists and researchers for many decades require a theoretical analysis and systematization of approaches to the study of the problem of loneliness.

        The concept of "loneliness" is complex and multicomponent. To date, there are several approaches to the study of the factors of the phenomenon of loneliness. Each of them is based on an understanding of the individual's personality, its interaction with society, deep psychological processes associated with adaptation and self-awareness of the individual. Loneliness has many types, but the most difficult is the psychological experience of loneliness, which is a complex process ^[24]. 

          In psychological science, loneliness is perceived as a problem with which it is difficult for an individual to cope on his own ^[2]. The frequent experience of loneliness in people is associated with the interruption of social ties: divorce, physical isolation or the breakup of a relationship with a loved one. The phenomenon accompanies a person throughout his life and is most clearly realized by him in adolescence. It is at this age that self-awareness is formed, which in an emotional and cognitive form determines not only the attitude to reality, but can also affect the formation of certain traits and the development of personality as a whole ^[24]. In this context, loneliness refers to an inner subjective experience.           

                 For a more precise definition of the concept of the phenomenon of loneliness, this article will conduct a comparative analysis of the works of foreign and domestic researchers, which will consider common and distinctive features in approaches to the study of the phenomenon of loneliness. 

            The most popular directions of studying the phenomenon of loneliness in Western studies are: psychoanalytic and psychodynamic [Z. Freud, H. Sullivan, J. Zilburg, F. Fromm-Reichman, E. Fromm, D. Risman, S. L. Frank], phenomenological [K. Rogers], existential [K. Mustakas, I. Yalom, V. Frankl], interactionist [p. Weiss], sociological [d. Risman, L. Slater], cognitive [D. Perlman, L.E. Peplo] ^[12].

         The definition given by T. B. Johnson and W. Sadler, who in the article "From loneliness to anomie" wrote: "Loneliness is an experience that causes a complex and acute feeling, expressing a certain form of self-consciousness, and showing the split of the main real network of relationships, is considered to be the most frequently used and reference value, passing from one work to another and the connections of the inner world of the individual" ^[13]. 

              For the first time, the phenomenon of loneliness was studied in detail by the proponent of psychoanalytic and psychodynamic approaches, E. Fromm, who believed that man is a social being and loneliness contradicts his nature.  The scientist stated that loneliness can become a source of somatic and mental disorders ^[8]. Psychologist Frida Fromm-Reichman also noted in her research that the main problem of all mental illnesses is the feeling of loneliness ^[19]. Psychoanalytic schools consider loneliness as a result of the manifestation of the following characteristics: aggressiveness, narcissism, megalomania, etc. ^[25]. Z. Freud also describes the phenomenon as a result of the manifestation of personal characteristics and the influence of unconscious human processes.  In his lectures, the scientist connects neurosis and loneliness that arose due to the lack of desired satisfaction. Neurosis is a monastery where a person retires and does not feel weak for life. He calls this process the "withdrawal" of a person into neurosis ^[26]. Unlike Z. Freida K. Horney believes that psychological defenses are aimed at overcoming the conflict between society and personality ^[8].

           In a 1938 study, G. Zilburg also identified the triad underlying the phenomenon of loneliness: megalomania, early narcissism and hostility of the surrounding world ^[4]. The psychologist investigated not only loneliness, but also solitude. In his understanding, these concepts are different from each other. He considered the state of solitude as a temporary and normal state of mind, and the feeling of loneliness as an oppressive, irresistible and lasting feeling. Concluding the review of psychodynamic and psychoanalytic terms, it is obvious that researchers consider the phenomenon as a pathological condition arising in the person's personality itself, and associate it with personal characteristics.  Next, the studies of supporters of the phenomenological approach will be considered.

           Proponents of the phenomenological approach mainly adhered to the idea that loneliness arises as a result of the rupture of ideal images of interpersonal relationships formed by phenomenological ideals in human consciousness. Society defines phenomenological ideals, forcing the subject to find a model of communication established by society and follow these standards. If the ideals do not coincide with the system of orientation of the individual, his interests and ideas about communication, the subject will feel distant from society. Psychologists T. Johnson and W. Sadler in the study of the phenomenon of loneliness emphasized its universality and comprehensiveness. One of the significant signs of the phenomenon of loneliness, psychologists note the immersion of the individual in himself ^[18]. In turn, K. Rogers developed a personality-oriented model of loneliness. He noted that the gap between the ideal and the real "I" generates loneliness. In his opinion, loneliness arises not because of early childhood experience, but because of immediate situational factors ^[15].  

      R.Weiss, a proponent of the interactionist trend, describes loneliness as the presence of a person in a state of social and emotional isolation. "Loneliness is caused not by the fact that a person literally finds himself in isolation, but by the fact that he finds a deficiency in the necessary human connection or set of connections... Loneliness under all circumstances appears as a reaction to the absence of some special type of connection or, more precisely, a reaction to the lack of one's own expectations regarding future connections" ^[6].

          Representatives of the sociological direction, F. Slater and D. Risman, believed that loneliness is a general, normative and statistical indicator that characterizes society. They see the reason for loneliness not in a person, but in the influence of various external factors on him (society, mass media, etc.). D. Risman believes that the basis for the emergence of feelings of loneliness are: alienation of a person, restriction of freedom and loss of personal autonomy lie. Consequently, proponents of the sociological approach believed that loneliness is directly related to the influence of external factors contributing to the lack of social ties ^[21].

              Regarding the supporters of the cognitive approach, in which loneliness is a construct of consciousness ^[22]. This type of experience is characteristic of a certain type of social relations in which a person lacks. E. Peplo paid attention not only to personal, but also situational factors and investigated the relationship between the level of experience of lonely people and their understanding of the causes of their condition. The central place in this approach is occupied by the model of cognitive dissonance, which defines it as a reaction to the discrepancy between a person's internal standards and his real social ties ^[2]. The cognitive approach implies that the feeling of loneliness arises when an individual realizes the discrepancy between the factors – the achieved and desired level of personal social contacts. Peplo approached the search for the causes of loneliness quite extensively: she explores both situational factors and characterological factors contributing to the occurrence. A. Beck also adhered to the study of the phenomenon in the context of a cognitive approach. He believed that in the process of experiencing loneliness, a person has a number of irrational thoughts ^[24]. Summarizing the review of cognitive behavioral approaches, it is obvious that they emphasize the role of self-knowledge and self-esteem of the individual. 

        The representative of the interactionist approach, R. Weiss, emphasizes that the accumulated impact of situational and personal aspects is a normal reaction of a person who is deficient in the necessary human connections. Loneliness under all circumstances appears as a reaction to the absence of some special type of connection or, more precisely, a reaction to the lack of one's own expectations regarding future connections" ^[6]. R.Weiss distinguished two types of loneliness: emotional and social, caused by various reasons. Emotional loneliness arises as a result of the lack of a close, intimate connection with a certain person and is manifested by a number of reactions such as anxiety, inner emptiness and concern. Social loneliness occurs due to the lack of communication with significant friendly ties, the desired circle of communication or a sense of belonging to society. Consequently, supporters of the sociological approach believed that loneliness is directly related to the influence of external factors contributing to the lack of social ties.    

      If the above-mentioned approaches consider the phenomenon of loneliness from the point of view of its subjective nature, the existential approach interprets the ability of a person to experience loneliness as a prerequisite for the formation and development of personality. In the process of his formation, an individual tries to demonstrate his uniqueness and uniqueness – his "self". Among the foreign psychologists investigating the phenomenon of loneliness, it is important to note K. Mustakas and I. Yalom, who consistently develop an existential methodology ^[22].

         K. Mustakas based his definition on two concepts as "vanity of loneliness" and true loneliness. "The vanity of loneliness" refers to the concept of a person's escape from existential questions, the answers to which he cannot yet find. This is manifested in the formation of various contacts and imitation of fruitful communication. By true loneliness, the scientist meant the feeling that an individual experiences when encountering certain situations - existential crises: birth, death, the fall of stable values and norms, etc. ^[5].

       B. Miyuskovich also believed that the feeling of experiencing loneliness is peculiar to a person as his basic characteristic. He believes that a person's fear of death is connected with the fact that it is his endless lonely existence that scares him. Having satisfied their biological needs, the individual seeks to reduce the experience of loneliness ^[16].

         Initially, domestic psychology studied the problem of loneliness within the framework of the problem of interpersonal communication and communication. Subsequently, it turned out that the phenomenon of loneliness is caused not only by communication, but also by personality qualities. An individual can feel lonely regardless of his surroundings by other people, moreover, the feeling of loneliness is directly experienced in the process of communication. During the Soviet period, two main positions regarding the phenomenon of loneliness were formulated in Russian psychological science. The first concept assumes that loneliness is an unnatural state for a person, since by nature a person is a social being. According to this, loneliness is a consequence of a person's internal contradictions and disappointments in life. Here loneliness is an objective isolation, but an inner experience of the inferiority of relations with society, the loss of hopes and landmarks.

        Another principle demonstrates the dual perception of the feeling of loneliness. On the one hand, the principle confirms the tragedy characteristic of the feeling of loneliness, on the other hand, there are prospects arising for personal growth through internal dialogue and solitude.

        Studying the phenomenon of loneliness from the point of view of psychological dictionaries, it is interpreted as one of the psychogenic factors that negatively affect a person's mental health ^[11]. Emotional and physical isolation are the main conditions of loneliness. However, there are a number of studies that consider loneliness not as a factor, but as a dynamic state. The phenomenon itself personally affects the deep inner world of a person, his self-consciousness.

       Loneliness is experienced both in the modality of normality and pathology. In most cases, it is accompanied by anxiety, boredom and emptiness, but at a relatively weak level it can lead to depression, confusion of real and illusory events, anxiety disorder, hallucinations ^[24].

       Domestic psychology considered the phenomenon as: socio-psychological (N. A. Berdyaev, I.O. Lossky, I. A. Ilyin, Zh. V. Puzanova, L. I. Starovoitova, K. A. Abulkhanova-Slavskaya, S. G. Korchagina, G. M. Tikhonov); consideration of phenomena similar with a sense of loneliness (solitude, isolation). The supporters of this theory are A.U.Kharash, V. I. Lebedev, O. N. Kuznetsov; the study of cultural and historical forms of loneliness (O. V. Dancheva, N. E. Pokrovsky, S.A. Vetrov). And also such psychologists as D. A. Leontiev, A. S. Gagarin, L. I. Starovoitova, E. V. Zinchenko, V. A. Andrusenko, V. P. Ivanova, V. I. Slobodchikov, N. A. Berdyaev, S. G. Korchagina and others ^[22].                                                              

        D. A. Leontiev, a supporter of the socio-psychological theory, describes the phenomenon in detail in his article "To fall in love with your loneliness", he claimed that "loneliness is the scourge of big cities". An individual, being in a crowd of people, feels a lack of communication and attention, starting to look for ways to compensate for this lack ^[14]. N.A.Berdyaev and S. G. Korchagina studied loneliness from the point of view of behavioral and sensory aspects ^[15].   

       B. G. Ananyev in his works highlighted the problems of dissolution of subjectivity and urbanization in the process of interpersonal interaction due to the widespread introduction and spread of mass communications ^[7].

       N. E. Pokrovsky in his research identifies the following aspects that characterize the features of loneliness: loneliness is a subjective experience that is not identical to social isolation. This means that a person can feel lonely being surrounded by people; loneliness is the result of a lack of communication and social ties ^[20].

       According to E. V. Zinchenko, loneliness is a certain mental state that arises as a result of frustration of a person's need to communicate with other people ^[10].

       Psychologists E. M. Borisova and K. M. Gurevichi have identified two points of view on the phenomenon of loneliness. The first is the "Soviet" understanding of loneliness as a state "contrary to the essence of man as a social being." In this context, loneliness expresses the discord of the individual with his inner self, perceived as a "crisis of expectations", an inferiority complex in relation to the world, disappointment and loss of all hope in all possible prospects. Loneliness emphasizes the emptiness of the inner self ^[9].

        The phenomenon is of interest to researchers not only from a conceptual point of view, but also the most committed to experiencing this feeling. And in her work G. M. Tikhonova "Loneliness: stereotype and reality" demonstrates that the most vulnerable group of people are young people. This is due to the loss of one's own identity and traditional landmarks, which lead to a feeling of pressure from others, as well as to high psychological vulnerability ^[23].

           D. A. Leontiev describes the phenomenon in detail in his article "To fall in love with your loneliness", he claimed that "loneliness is the scourge of big cities". An individual, being in a crowd of people, feels a lack of communication and attention, starting to look for ways to compensate for this lack ^[6]. Domestic researchers like N. A. Berdyaev and S. G. Korchagina studied loneliness from the point of view of behavioral and sensory aspects ^[15]. 

       The analysis of domestic studies shows that the concept of loneliness in their works is mainly based on active-personal and existential-humanistic approaches. The construction of a scientific theory of loneliness is a complex process associated primarily with the fact that the phenomenon does not have clear categorical features, and secondly, loneliness is a complex state that includes a huge number of mental processes.

             Researchers E. N. Osin and D. A. Leontiev believe that the feeling of loneliness is an integral part of human life and support. Psychologists emphasize that at present, for a more thorough study of this phenomenon, it is necessary to develop scales that would allow studying not only negative loneliness, but also positive solitude. These authors have developed a questionnaire designed to study positive loneliness ^[17].     

            V.A.Andrusenko explores the phenomenon of loneliness through the prism of a heuristic approach, which in his opinion is an important stage for "free self-determination and self-affirmation in the world" ^[3], while pointing out the importance of recognizing the positive features of loneliness.  V. I. Slobodchikov connects aspects of identification and alienation with the state of loneliness, emphasizing them as a necessity for the formation of an individual's worldview and inner world. Researcher E.P. Krupnik supports this opinion, noting that the development of empathic abilities and a more conscious attitude of an individual to his life develops due to the dynamic balance of psychological processes of identification and alienation ^[24]. 

         The analysis of psychological approaches made it possible to identify common and distinctive features of the works of foreign and domestic psychologists.  According to the study conducted above, the following conclusion should be drawn: foreign scientists, considering the problem of loneliness, said that a person experiences loneliness experiencing feelings of disconnection with society and with the public. This is due to various factors, such as the loss of a sense of belonging to a family, clan, isolation from historical realities, loss of a sense of harmony and loss of connection with nature. A common feature of foreign and domestic studies is that all scientists confirm the fact that the experience of loneliness is characteristic of people who both have contacts and connections with their environment and society, and those who do not have these contacts. Also a foreign psychologist K. Rogers and the domestic E. M. Borisova and K. M. Gurevichi define loneliness from the same position, believing that the feeling of loneliness primarily arises in connection with discord with the inner self. There is also a common feature in the approach of G.M.Tikhonova, where she attributed the experience of loneliness to certain social groups as young people, which is observed in the sociological approach of foreign researchers. Despite the subjective nature of foreign and domestic research, another common feature is the fact that not all studies are riddled with hopelessness. As it was noted earlier, Researchers E. N. Osin and D. A. Leontiev, as well as representatives of the existential approach, believe that the feeling of loneliness is an integral part of human life and changes the form of subjective experience of loneliness into a positive one.

      It should be noted that most domestic works are not permeated with complete hopelessness, which is typical for Western works exploring the phenomenon of loneliness. Domestic psychologists believe that it is possible to solve the problem of loneliness. In general, according to the majority of psychologists, not enough empirical studies have been conducted and the development of scales is necessary for a comprehensive analysis of this phenomenon. They will allow you to study both the negative manifestations of loneliness and the positive manifestation of solitude.

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