CERN's sanctions regime against Russian science: nature, features and consequences

Shugurov Mark Vladimirovich ORCID: 0000-0003-3604-3961 Doctor of Philosophy Professor of the Department of international law, Saratov State Law Academy 410028, Russia, Saratov, Volskaya str., 1 shugurovs@mail.ru Other publications by this author

Kolodub Grigorii Vyacheslavovich PhD in Law Associate professor, Department of Civil Law, Saratov State Law Academy 410028, Russia, Saratov region, Saratov, Volskaya str., 1, room 521 kolodub-ssla@yandex.ru

 The research was carried out at the expense of a grant from the Russian Science Foundation No. 23-28-01296, https://rscf.ru/project/23-28-01296/

Introduction

The creation of legal, economic and informational conditions for the participation of Russian scientists and specialists in international scientific cooperation in the form of various thematic programs and projects is an integral part of the state policy in the field of development of fundamental and applied science.  The result of this policy was not only the deepening of scientific ties with various states of the modern world, but also the integration of Russian science into international collaborations and scientific networks operating within the framework of megascience class facilities (Large Hadron Collider, CERN; European X-ray Free Electron Laser, XFEL; Center for Ion and Antiproton Research in Europe, FAIR; European Synchrotron Radiation Center, ESRF; International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor, ITER). Such cooperation plays an important role in ensuring the growth of scientific knowledge at the global and national levels.

The introduction in 2022 by a number of states and their scientific institutions, as well as various international scientific structures, of a large number of unilateral restrictive measures (sanctions) aimed at suspending or severing institutional scientific cooperation with Russia, which has become an unprecedented phenomenon in the history of international relations, turned out to be the subject of detailed analysis in the domestic ^{[1; 2; 3; 4]} and foreign literature ^{[5; 6; 7; 8]}, not to mention the numerous expert assessments reflected in publications on various Internet resources. In the vast majority of cases, the subject of expert and research assessments turned out to be such a phenomenon as a "tsunami" of unilateral restrictive measures in the field of science, sometimes referred to in foreign journalism as scientific sanctions. Nevertheless, in each case, the grounds and procedure for imposing sanctions, as well as their scale and consequences, are specific. In this regard, it is reasonable to assert about the sanctions regimes imposed by individual unfriendly States and their scientific institutions, as well as regional associations of States, mainly the European Union. Some international intergovernmental and non-governmental structures in the field of science act as a separate category of entities that have imposed anti-Russian sanctions.

From the point of view of the authors of the article, the development of a differentiated approach to the types of scientific sanctions depending on the subjects of their adoption may become an actual trend within the subject area of research focusing on the problem of anti-Russian sanctions against Russian science. The activity of the European Organization for Nuclear Research/CERN (hereinafter – CERN, the Center) in taking restrictive measures regarding the participation of Russian science in international cooperation is characterized by a high degree of intensity.

The purpose of the article is to reveal the content and organizational mechanism of CERN sanctions aimed at ending institutional cooperation with Russia. CERN's sanctions policy, as well as the resulting sanctions regime, have not yet been the subject of special analysis in the scientific literature.

The relevance of the research topic is due to the fact that cooperation between Russia and CERN was carried out until recently in a format that allowed solving voluminous scientific problems in the field of fundamental physics, which have not only ideological, but also applied significance. For this reason, the path of severing cooperation with Russia, which CERN has embarked on, obeying the logic of politicized Western sanctions, may slow down the growth of scientific knowledge in very relevant areas of science, including interdisciplinary ones.

Achieving the stated goal involves solving the following research tasks, such as:

 – determining the nature and achieved level of cooperation between CERN and Russia in the process of expanding knowledge in the field of high energy physics and elementary particles, as well as revealing the directions of bilateral strategic partnership in the pre-sanctions period;

– identification of prerequisites and disclosure of the organizational mechanism for the termination of mutually beneficial cooperation between CERN and Russia;

– forecasting the negative consequences of CERN sanctions for both Russian and world science in the field of fundamental physics.                 

The hypothesis of the study is the position that CERN's anti–Russian sanctions policy is based on a combination of, on the one hand, politicized principles, and, on the other, extreme prudence, which was expressed in the "stretching" of the measures taken over time and their focus on taking into account the current geopolitical situation. This indicates the incompleteness of the transition from the logic of scientific diplomacy to the rigid logic of sanctions, which makes it possible to predict the preservation of some elements of scientific diplomacy in relations between CERN and Russia.       

Research methodology. The achievement of the research goal, as well as the solution of relevant research tasks, is based on the use of the following system of methods and approaches. In particular, the authors used a historical method that made it possible to identify a fundamentally new phase of relations between CERN and Russia, the content of which contrasts with the previous period and means a unilateral rejection of fruitful bilateral scientific and technical cooperation. Event analysis became the basis for understanding the process of deploying CERN's sanctions policy over time, which resulted in the formation of a specific sanctions regime. The use of an institutional approach has become the basis for considering a new phase of relations between CERN and Russia through the prism of the concept of an institutional gap used within the framework of the theory of unilateral restrictive measures (sanctions) in the field of international scientific cooperation. The institutional approach was supplemented by the method of conceptual analysis of official documents, which allowed us to reveal the motivation for choosing a model of CERN's sanctions behavior towards Russia. The use of the predictive method has become the basis for determining the negative results of CERN sanctions in the medium and long term, which in the future can become the basis for expert assessments regarding the response measures of both sides aimed at overcoming the current situation.

The novelty of the study lies in the fact that for the first time in domestic and foreign literature, the CERN sanctions regime against Russian science is systematically analyzed, as well as its negative consequences are revealed. 

1. Partnership between Russia and CERN in the pre-sanctions period: results and new plans

As you know, CERN is a leader in research in the physics of elementary particles, high energies and the atomic nucleus based on technologies used in the muon collider, as well as methods of the wake plasma field. Being the largest laboratory in the world, the Center is a platform for conducting industry and cross-industry research, as well as for the development of new large installations and technologies for fundamental research in the relevant field of theoretical physics. Moreover, it provides States with the opportunity to save the financial resources needed to create and operate ultra-expensive equipment, and scientists get the opportunity not to duplicate their efforts.

Currently, the scientific community of the Center consists of 2,700 employees and 12,000 users representing scientific institutions from 82 countries [CERN Annual Report 2022. P. 12. URL: https://cds.cern.ch/record/2857560/files/CernAnnualReport_2022_EN.pdf (date of application: 10.10.2023)]. In a generalized form, the range of its activities includes the following: conducting fundamental research by providing researchers from various countries with access to a unique set of particle accelerators and conducting world-class experiments in the field of nuclear physics and high-energy physics; development and international technology transfer; development and use of new information technologies; educational activities. According to the officially stated goals, the ongoing research is aimed not only at verifying the Standard Model, but also at making attempts to go beyond it, as well as conducting advanced research in related fields (quantum gravity, cosmology, astroparticle physics, etc.) [CERN'S Main Objectives for the Period 2021-2025. URL: https://home.cern/sites/default/files/2022-01/CERNS%20Main%20Objectives_0.pdf (date appeals: 11.10.2023)]. In accordance with the updated Strategy for Research in the field of elementary particles, the CERN community, represented by various collaborations, is called upon to vigorously conduct joint coordinated research in cooperation with representatives of other fields of science, as well as, in cooperation with industry, to develop software and create a computing infrastructure based on the use of the latest achievements in the field of information technology and science about the data [2020 Update of the European strategy for Particle Physics by the European Strategy Group. URL: https://cds.cern.ch/record/2721370/files/CERN-ESU-015-2020%20Update%20European%20Strategy.pdf (date of access: 09/14/2023)].

Since its creation in 1954, CERN has become a kind of crossroads of the West and the East. Suffice it to point out that its associate members include India, Pakistan and Turkey. The observer status in the CERN Council is of no small importance for the countries concerned.In addition to Russia, the United States and Japan have observer status, as well as international structures with different legal natures, such as the European Union, the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research (JINR) (Dubna) and UNESCO. It should be noted that CERN is also a space of intensive scientific diplomacy. In particular, the tradition of maintaining contacts with colleagues around the world in difficult geopolitical circumstances has found its vivid expression in his work. To confirm this, we point out that CERN maintained open relations on the other side of the Iron Curtain at the height of the Cold War [Smith C.L. CERN and SESAME – Science Diplomacy Building Bridges (December 10, 2022). URL: https://www.sciencediplomacy.org/perspective/2022/cern-and-sesame-science-diplomacy-building-bridges (date of access: 07.11.2023)], ^{[9, p. 60]}. In particular, he continued to cooperate with Soviet scientists during the situation related to Czechoslovakia (1968) and Afghanistan (1979).

Russia has been successfully cooperating with CERN for more than half a century. Individual contacts with scientists from the former Soviet Union began back in 1964. A new stage of cooperation was set by the Agreement between the Government of the USSR and CERN on the further Development of scientific and technical cooperation in the field of high energy physics, signed in 1991 shortly before the collapse of the USSR [Agreement between the Government of the USSR and the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) on the further development of scientific and technical cooperation in the field of high energy physics (Moscow, May 29, 1991). URL: Access mode: https://www.lawmix.ru/abro/8765 (date of access: 11/15/2023)]. Article 2 provided for the expansion of the participation of researchers from different countries in joint experiments and research projects, and Article 3 consolidated their participation in major programs and/or projects, for example, in the Accelerator Storage Complex (UNK) under construction in the USSR, as well as in the modernization of the electron-positron collider power lines and in the process of development of linear electron-positron accelerators on counter beams.

After the collapse of the Soviet Union, the participation of Russian scientific organizations in CERN projects was confirmed in the Cooperation Agreement between the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) and the Government of the Russian Federation on the Further Development of Scientific and Technical Cooperation in the field of high Energy physics in 1993 [Cooperation Agreement between the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) and the Government of the Russian Federation on further development of scientific and technical cooperation in the field of high energy physics (Protvino, October 30, 1993). URL: https://refdb.ru/look/2619312-p30.html (date of access: 11/15/2023)]. In accordance with Article 6 of the Agreement, the Russia–CERN Cooperation Committee was established, which became a platform for coordinating cooperation and discussing its prospects. The agreement provided for Russia's participation in the construction of the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) and the development of its largest experimental detector complexes (ALICE, ATLAS, CMS and LHCb). At the same time, the preamble of the Agreement confirmed Russia's desire to become a full member of CERN. All this corresponded to the most important directions of the Russian national program in the field of high energy physics and elementary particles.

On June 14, 1996, the Protocol to the 1993 Agreement was signed [Protocol on Participation in the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) Project to the Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) on the Further Development of Scientific and Technical Cooperation in the Field of High energy physics dated October 30, 1993 (Moscow, 06/14/1996). URL: https://www.conventions.ru/int/1980 / (date of reference: 11/18/2023)], which opened up wide opportunities for the participation of Russian science and industry in the LHC project, a priority and global scientific project at the turn of the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. The protocol stipulated that scientific equipment for the construction of both accelerator and experimental installations (ATLAS, CMS, ALICE and LHCb detectors) with a total cost of about 200 million Swiss francs (in 1996 prices) would be produced in Russia. According to the terms of the Protocol, a third of this amount was to be allocated by Russia, and a third by collaborations and CERN. It was assumed that the rest of the cost of the equipment would be covered by cheaper materials, as well as the cost of labor in Russia. The 1996 Protocol on participation in the LHC project, which determined the Russian contribution, was extended in 2002. In addition, in 1998, memoranda of understanding were signed for the construction of ATLAS and CMS detectors, and later ALICE and LHCb.

In parallel with the signing of memoranda on each detector, four more annexes to the 1996 Protocol were prepared and signed, which detailed the distribution of Russian funding, contributions from collaborations and Russia's planned contribution to detector subsystems, in the development and assembly of which Russian organizations participated. In order to ensure the fulfillment of Russia's obligations, the Ministry of Science and the Ministry of Atomic Energy have developed a joint decision on financing the work of Russian organizations involved in the construction of the LHC and detectors, which was signed on January 25, 1999. In subsequent years, appropriate decisions were made annually on joint financial support for the LHC project and the modernization of its detectors [Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation dated October 23, 2017 No. 2320-R. URL:  http://static.government.ru/media/files/gBcXgxLoLizWQqAABWTkB4bVAmvBJsxh.pdf (date of application: 06/17/2023); Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation dated October 23, 2017 No. 2321-R. URL: http://static.government.ru/media/files/PjtVsHywOzkLOo5gViewAOCZPYCnmK9k.pdf (date of application: 17.11.2023)].

Due to the completion of the construction of the new accelerator and the commissioning of its experimental facilities, Russia confirmed its intention to participate in the new phase of the LHC project by concluding a Protocol with CERN on participation in the experimental program at the Large Hadron Collider in 2003 [Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation dated December 18, 2003 No. 1871-r on signing a Protocol on participation in the experimental program at the Large Hadron Collider in 2003. URL: https://rulaws.ru/goverment/Rasporyazhenie-Pravitelstva-RF-ot-18.12.2003-N-1871-r / (date of access: 11/19/2023)]. This Protocol defined the specific obligations of Russian institutions for the maintenance and operation of experimental facilities, as well as fixed the principles of their financing, which were defined in memoranda of understanding on the maintenance and operation of each of the four experiments and on participation in the project for the development of global distributed computing systems for the LHC (World LHC Computing Grid project – WLCG).

Russia, being one of the main participants in the LHC project, supplied high-tech equipment for both the collider itself and its detectors, as well as for other experimental installations. More than 20 scientific organizations of the Russian Academy of Sciences took part in these works on the part of Russia, with the simultaneous participation of the State Corporation Rosatom and the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation. It should also be recalled here about the participation of 30 industrial enterprises of Russia, as well as such world-famous scientific organizations as JINR, Lomonosov Moscow State University, the Kurchatov Institute National Research Center, the Budker Institute of Nuclear Physics SB RAS, etc. As an example, we can point to the colossal ground transportation of an automatic line of magnets for the LHC from Novosibirsk to Geneva and the production of the most modern crystal detectors in Russia.

According to data from open sources, Russian specialists take part in four main experiments named in accordance with the main detectors of the Large Hadron Collider – in the ATLAS, CMS, ALICE and LHCb collaborations operating under the legal form of a simple partnership ^{[10, p. 80]}, as well as in a number of non-accelerating experiments (experiments on a derived beam, neutrino projects and projects aimed at searching for rare particle decays). More than a thousand Russian scientists, engineers, IT specialists and students registered at the Center took part in twenty-two experiments [Cooperation between Russian universities and CERN will help attract young specialists to science (11/29/2021). URL: https://minobrnauki.gov.ru/press-center/news/novosti-ministerstva/44025 / (date of access: 10/25/2023)]. About 800 Russian scientists working at CERN facilities annually published about 300 scientific publications.

Russian scientists make up one of the largest user groups with all the necessary competencies, which predetermined Russia's significant contribution to achieving CERN's goals. The main purpose of the research is to verify the Standard Model describing the world of elementary particles and representing a quantum field theory. The composition of the fundamental particles in this model was fully experimentally confirmed by the discovery of the Higgs boson in 2012 at the Large Hadron Collider. However, some accumulated experimental data encourage us to go beyond the Standard Model by revealing the nature of "dark" matter and searching for an answer to the question of the occurrence of asymmetry of matter and antimatter in the observable Universe ^{[11, p. 16]}.

The strategic nature of the partnership between Russia and the Center is based on the combination of their research and scientific and technological potentials, as well as on mutual interests. Russia's interest lay in the fact that cooperation opens up the possibility for Russian scientists and engineers to access unique equipment, the most modern computer technologies and world-class scientific and technical developments. In a more detailed form, the benefits are that Russia continues to be an "intellectual link in the world where fundamental knowledge and discoveries are "produced" that make it possible to understand the nature of matter, space and time" ^{[12, p. 5]}. In the applied aspect, the benefits are to stimulate the production of high-tech equipment, which contributes to building the potential for innovative economic development. Other authors come to similar conclusions. In particular, it is noted that "active participation in international collaborations on high energy physics allows Russia to gain advantages for domestic accelerator programs in three areas: the possibility of developing and obtaining important technical and innovative resources, technological division of labor and the exchange of its results between partner countries for cooperation, the involvement of young scientists and specialists in this process" ^{[13, p. 9]}.

The Center's interest in cooperation with Russia is due to the fact that Russia is one of the key partners with significant scientific and technological competencies in demand during the modernization of the LHC within the framework of the High Luminosity LHC (HL-LHC) project (2013-2026), aimed at a tenfold increase in the luminosity of proton-proton collisions at an energy of 14 TeV based on introduction of new elements of the accelerator chain. And, of course, CERN was interested in cooperating with Russia in the process of developing the Future Circular Collider (FCC), which will have a tunnel of 100 km. The beginning of its creation in 2020 was envisaged in the updated European Strategy for Particle Physics. The future collider is designed to solve the problem of unprecedented accurate measurement of the parameters of the Standard Model, a detailed study of the processes of phase transitions that took place at the earliest stages of the Universe's existence, as well as to study the properties of matter under extreme conditions, search for particles of "dark" matter, study the mechanism of "confinement" of quarks, etc. In a global context, the FCC may compete with the International Linear Collider (ILC) project, which is supposed to be built in Japan [Behnke T., Brau J.E., Foster B. et al. (2013) The International Linear Collider Technical Design Report. Preprint arXiv:1306.6327. URL: https://arxiv.org/abs/1306.6327 (accessed:10/20/2023)], and the CEPC Circular Electron Positron Collider Project in China [The CEPC Study Group (2018) CEPC Conceptual Design Report: Vol.1. Accelerator Preprint arXiv:1809.00285. URL:  https://arxiv.org/abs/1809.00285 (accessed: 10/20/2023)].

Having observer status, in 2012 the Russian Federation announced its intentions to become an associate member of the Center. By itself, this status means granting preferences in the distribution of industrial orders, but at the same time it is assumed that obligations will be assumed to pay annual contributions to the CERN budget. However, plans were later adjusted, since associate membership assumed participation in financing programs and projects of cooperation with CERN, in which Russia was not always a participant [The Ministry of Education and Science explained Russia's status at CERN (03/10/2018). URL: https://www.interfax.ru/russia/603051 (date of access: 11/25/2023)].

According to Academician G. Trubnikov, "associate membership would involve a contribution of about 10-11 million Swiss francs, which comes to the CERN budget and is further spent at the discretion of the international Council. There is no guarantee that this contribution will be returned by contracts and orders to Russia. An associate member does not have the right to vote on the Council, he is only present at the meeting" [International scientific collaborations are the last thing that is being destroyed. Grigory Trubnikov on the past and future cooperation between Russia and CERN (03/15/2018). URL: https://indicator.ru/physics/rossiya-i-cern.htm (date of access: 09/15/2023)]. CERN itself considered Russia not as one of the participating countries, but as a special partner.

The essence of the status of a special partner is that a State with such a status directs financial and technological resources to participate in experiments in which it is interested. The USA and Japan cooperate with the Center in a similar format. Therefore, in March 2018, the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation withdrew the application for associate membership with the intention of obtaining a more promising status. Russia's new status is enshrined in the 2019 Agreement, which provides a comprehensive framework for cooperation between the Russian Federation and CERN [Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) on Scientific and Technical Cooperation in the Field of High Energy Physics and Other Areas of Mutual Interest (04/16/2019, Geneva). URL:  http://publication.pravo.gov.ru/Document/View/0001201912020024?index=8&rangeSize=1 (accessed: 10/21/2023)]. According to representatives of the Ministry of Defense, "the new Agreement…  creates a modern foundation and upper stage for cooperation between Russia and CERN" [Cooperation "Russia – CERN" (04/17/2019). URL: http://sinp.msu.ru/ru/post/25999 (date of access: 10/22/2023)].

The increase in the level of cooperation was reflected in the symmetrical nature of the interaction. In particular, the Agreement sets out the areas of cooperation within CERN in which Russia is interested. The Russian side confirmed participation in four major experiments at the Large Hadron Collider (ATLAS, CMS, LHCb and ALICE), and also announced joining the second phase of modernization of the accelerator and its experimental facilities, which began in December 2018. Other areas of interaction included research and development for future high–energy colliders - the Compact Linear Collider (CLIC) and the Future Circular Collider (FCC).

 At the same time, the Agreement establishes the directions of CERN's participation in projects in Russia. These are experiments at the electron-positron collider at the G.I. Budker Institute of Nuclear Physics SB RAS; research and development work on testing particle detection methods; research and development work on high-field superconducting magnet material, etc. In accordance with the 2019 Agreement, CERN intended to participate in the launch of expensive scientific installations in Russia, the joint development of new technologies for superconducting magnets, information technology and big data analysis systems, and also intended to send European scientists to Russia to participate in experiments at the neutron source of the PIK reactor (Gatchina).

The interest of the Center in financing Russian scientific projects of the megascience class and its participation in technological exchange is determined by the need to streamline the process of creating similar installations in the Center itself. For example, in Dubna, since 2013, the construction of the unique NICA collider complex (Nucleotron-based Ion Collider Facility) has been carried out on the basis of JINR [Russian Collider: how scientists are preparing the “big bang" in Dubna (06/20/2018). URL: https://na.ria.ru/20180620/1522983745.html?in=t (date of access: 10/24/2023)]. The complex is aimed at obtaining new knowledge about the process of the birth of the Universe, i.e. about the "Big Bang", namely about the process of the emergence of proton and neutron fluxes from quark-gluon plasma [Nucleotron based Ion Collider Facility. URL:  https://nica.jinr.ru/ru / (date of access: 11/23/2023)]. The launch is scheduled for 2023. More than 300 scientists from seventy institutes from thirty-two countries of the world participate in this project. It is expected that with the commissioning of new elements of the NICA accelerator complex, the number of project participants will increase several times. It should be noted that the process of creating the NICA collider on the basis of JINR led to an intensification of technology exchange and an expansion of CERN's participation in Russian scientific projects [Expert: the construction of the NICA collider in Russia intensified technology exchange with CERN (07/03/2021). URL: https://nauka.tass.ru/nauka/11815927 (date of access: 11/22/2023)]. In addition, the Center expressed its intention to participate in the project to create a unique Russian electron-positron collider of a new generation in Russia (Super C-Tau Factory) [The European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) will participate in the development of a unique Russian electron-positron collider of a new generation (Super C-Tau Factory) (04/22/2019). URL:  https://ria.ru/20190422/1552929526.html (date of access: 11/23/2023)]. The form of participation was to be the use of the results of joint developments, as well as various technologies.

New prospects for cooperation were discussed during the meeting of the Russia–CERN Committee, held on April 15-16, 2019 in Geneva [Russia–CERN Cooperation (04/17/2019). URL: http://sinp.msu.ru/ru/post/25999 (accessed: 10/28/2023)].  The attention of the participants was focused on the topical issues of creating a high-luminosity LHC accelerator and further steps to ensure the participation of Russian organizations in LHC modernization projects, as well as on issues of cooperation within the framework of experiments on physical research outside colliders.

The Protocol on Maintenance and Operation of Large Hadron Collider Detectors, which was signed at the 43rd meeting of the Russia-CERN Committee (Moscow, July 2, 2021), was supposed to be a reliable basis for continued cooperation between CERN and Russia [Protocol on Maintenance and Operation of Large Hadron Collider Detectors (Moscow, 2 July 2021). URL: https://rulaws.ru/goverment/Rasporyazhenie-Pravitelstva-RF-ot-04.05.2021-N-1175-r / (date of access: 11/21/2023)]. The document is aimed at active cooperation between Russian scientists and CERN, as well as at creating conditions for the development of innovative activities and for the training of highly qualified personnel for international scientific cooperation and breakthrough high-tech development of Russia.

Within the framework of the 44th meeting of the CERN-Russia Committee, held at the site of the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Russian Federation at the end of 2021, the central topic of discussion was the current status of CERN experiments and the participation of the Russian side in them [A meeting of the CERN–Russia Committee was held (11/21/2021). URL: http://www.jinr.ru/posts/sostoyalos-zasedanie-komiteta-tsern-rossiya / (date of access: 03.11.2023)]. A new issue on the cooperation agenda was the expansion of the participation of Russian universities in CERN programs in the context of the implementation of the Priority 2030 program in order to involve talented young people in science. The fact is that CERN is not only a major research, but also an educational center. About 30% of the participants in the LHC experiments are undergraduates and graduate students. Following the discussions at the 44th meeting of the CERN-Russia Committee, the Russian side confirmed its readiness to continue its active participation in the modernization of the LHC not only in the accelerator, but also in the detector component. In addition, JINR has taken the initiative to contribute to the digital transformation of GRID, as well as to the improvement of the EOS data storage system.

A similar pathos was observed at the meeting of representatives of the Russian Academy of Sciences and the Center (November 29, 2021) [RAS and CERN discussed issues of cooperation (11/30/2021). URL: https://www.ras.ru/news/shownews.aspx?id=ac1483ab-ad15-4b61-a656-d431d55646b8&print=1 (date of access: 09/14/2023)]. At this meeting, the Director General F. Gianotti was awarded a diploma on her election as a foreign member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. In addition, the idea of concluding a cooperation agreement between CERN and the Russian Academy of Sciences was expressed [Cooperation of Russian universities with CERN will help attract young specialists to science (11/29/2021). URL: https://minobrnauki.gov.ru/press-center/news/novosti-ministerstva/44025 / (date of access: 07/05/2023)]. And finally, very significant prospects were associated not only with Russia's participation in the modernization of the LHC, but also with the development of a new super-powerful Future circular collider. Since its creation is associated with solving serious technological, geological, environmental and economic problems, the preparatory stage for its technical and design support has become the content of a special project implemented within the framework of the EU Horizon 2020 program [Horizon 2020. "An innovative study of the future circular collider." ID 951754 (02.11.2020–01.11.2024). URL:  https://cordis.europa.eu/project/id/951754 (date of access: 09.10.2023)]. 

The international partnership between Russia and CERN during their long-term cooperation meant the implementation and distribution of various types of technical and scientific research activities, which made it possible to eliminate duplication and at the same time contributed to the initiation of efforts by each of the parties to develop the resources necessary to fulfill their obligations. The result of the partnership between Russia and CERN was not only the further development of nuclear physics and high-energy physics, but also the latest accelerator technologies. These results represent a contribution to the development of the scientific physical picture of the world and mean the progress of the sector of high-tech technologies, which, due to their versatility, can be used in a wide variety of areas of science and technology. However, the flurry of sanctions against Russian science and Russia's participation in international scientific cooperation has significantly complicated the cooperation between Russia and CERN, which has been developing very successfully for many decades.              

2. A new round in CERN's activities and anti-Russian sanctions

The COVID-2019 pandemic has led to a decrease in the intensity of CERN's functioning. However, despite this, a large amount of work has been done, which made it possible to restart the accelerator complex in 2022. A prolonged shutdown during the pandemic created conditions for the transition to the high brightness phase of the LHC based on improved detectors. As a result, the LHC began to work with unprecedented energies of 13.6 TeV, which can lead to increased experimental accuracy and increased potential for new discoveries. Since the CERN research program is much broader than the LHC experiments, the achievements of 2022 can also include the successful restart of experiments and installations at other accelerators (ISOLDE, n_TOF, Eastern Zone, AD and ELENA). In addition, CERN has closely begun work on a feasibility study of the Future circular collider and preparations for the creation of a large research infrastructure based on special roadmaps coordinated and prepared by a Group of Directors of European Laboratories and the European Committee of Future Accelerators [Bassler U. Message from the President of the Council (2021). URL: https://cds.cern.ch/record/2812581/files/Pages%20from%20CERNAnnualReport_2021_EN.pdf (date of access: 11/01/2023)].

 An important event was the approval of the comprehensive Open Science Policy [CERN Open Science Policy (Approved by the Director General on 01 October 2022). URL: https://cds.cern.ch/record/2835057/files/CERN-OPEN-2022-013.pdf (date of application: 17.10.2023)], aimed at making all CERN research accessible, inclusive and transparent to both a wide range of researchers and society as a whole. The practice of open science was to be realized by encouraging research processes and tools that promote international cooperation, the free dissemination of knowledge and the availability of research results based on the implementation of open access to publications and their metadata. In addition, the Policy aimed at encouraging and facilitating the exchange of data and software.

Meanwhile, these achievements and initiatives turned out to be associated with a number of problems related to the imposition of sanctions against Russia, the driving motive of which is the condemnation of its own. CERN, being a European organization and following the logic of imposing restrictive measures on the EU, its member states, as well as other European and equally non–European states, embarked on the path of severing partnership with Russia as one of the important and promising collaborators. But, as foreign experts note, "CERN has become the last organization to break scientific ties" [Naujokaityt? G. CERN Physics Lab Suspends Ties with Russia (March 8, 2022). URL: https://sciencebusiness.net/news/cern-physics-lab-suspends-ties-russia (date of application: 11.10.2023)]. In our opinion, this indicates some caution in making fateful decisions, which, as we will show later, turned out to be stretched over time.

The imposition of CERN sanctions against Russia, as well as Belarus, whose researchers play a significant role in the development of accelerators and detectors, as well as in conducting experiments ^[14], have created serious problems for the Center itself. It should be noted that their aggravation was also caused by the general regime of anti-Russian sanctions in the economic sphere.

 According to the decision of the Council of the Center, which was formulated in a resolution adopted at an extraordinary session on March 8, 2022 [CERN Response to the Aggression against Ukraine //CERN/3626 (March 8, 2022). URL: https://council.web.cern.ch/sites/default/files/c-e-3626_Resolution_re_Russia%20.pdf (date of application: 10/20/2023)], the observer status of the Russian Federation has been suspended until further notice. The rationale was that, in the opinion of the Council, the Special Military Operation (hereinafter referred to as the SVO) contradicts the values to which the Center is committed. Recall that according to the Convention on the Establishment of the European Organization for Nuclear Research [Convention for the establishment of the European Organization for Nuclear Research (Paris, 1st July, 1953 as amended on 17 January 1971). URL:https://council.web.cern.ch/en/content/convention-establishment-european-organization-nuclear-research (date of request: 10/21/2023)CERN was established in order to unite nations and people for the peaceful pursuit of science. Article II.1 of the Convention provides, among other things, that the Center should not engage in research for military purposes. The proclaimed values are based on cross-border scientific cooperation, considered as a driving force for the preservation and consolidation of peace on the planet.

Updating the axiological reasoning, the Council decided to suspend or, if impossible, cancel all joint events organized jointly with institutions from Russia and Belarus. It was also decided to suspend the conclusion of association agreements with any new persons affiliated with basic institutions in the Russian Federation and the Republic of Belarus [CERN Council responds to Russian invasion of Ukraine March (March 8, 2022). URL: https://home.cern/news/news/cern/cern-council-responds-russian-invasion-ukraine (date of application: 14.11.2023)]. According to the resolution, CERN's participation in new cooperation with Russia and its scientific institutions is not envisaged until further notice. The decision stated that the organization's management would carefully monitor the situation and take any further measures if necessary, as well as comply with all accepted international sanctions. At the same time, this does not exclude the possibility of further continuation of the work of Russian researchers, who make up about 8% of the international users of the Center.

As can be seen, at the first stage of the Center's sanctions policy, only a partial institutional break was undertaken, while other formal cooperation frameworks were not affected. Based on the important role of Russia in the field of fundamental physics, J. Ellis, a theoretical physicist from King's College London, who has worked at the Center for more than 40 years, stressed that it is necessary to strive to maintain cooperation to the extent politically possible [Cit. on:Stone R. Western Nations Cut Ties with Russian Science, Even Some Project Try to Remain Neutral (March 8, 2022). URL:https://www.science.org/content/article/western-nations-cut-ties-russian-science-even-some-projects-try-remain-neutral (date of access: 07/18/2023)]. However, as you know, Russian researchers who adhere to different political views take part in CERN scientific projects. Against this background, it should be noted that there is no consensus regarding the differentiation of Russian scientists as to who should break off cooperation and with whom it should be continued.

Literally two weeks later, namely on March 25, 2022, the Council confirmed the previous decisions and adopted new ones [CERN Council Takes Further Measures in Response to the Invasion of Ukraine (March 25, 2022). URL: https://home.cern/news/news/cern/cern-council-takes-further-measures-response-invasion-ukraine (accessed 09/18/2023)]. In its resolution No. 3637, the Council highly appreciated the appropriate and timely measures taken by the management of the Center, including compliance with all applicable international sanctions and the effective suspension of all exchanges of funds, materials and personnel with the Russian Federation and the Republic of Belarus [CERN Response to the Aggression against Ukraine: Additional Measures Concerning the Russian Federation and the Republic of Belarus // CERN/3637/Corr. (30 March 2022). URL: https://council.web.cern.ch/sites/default/files/c-e-3637Corr_Council%20resolution_%20RU_BY.pdf (accessed 14.10.2023)]. In addition, it was decided to suspend the participation of the Center's scientists in all scientific committees of scientific institutes located on the territory of the Russian Federation and the Republic of Belarus and vice versa. Moreover, all joint activities have been suspended or canceled.

It should be noted that from session to session, the Council planned the adoption of new measures. In confirmation of this, we point out that at the session on March 25, 2022, the issue of the prospect of making a decision at the regular session in June 2022 on the suspension of international cooperation agreements, protocols and amendments thereto, as well as any other agreements, including memoranda of understanding, defining the participation of the Russian Federation and the Republic was discussed Belarus and their national institutes participate in the scientific projects of the Center. Thus, this can be seen as a desire to bring a legal basis for the termination of cooperation at the official level.

In anticipation of the adoption of the planned decision by the Council, serious steps were taken aimed at breaking off interinstitutional cooperation with JINR, with which CERN has mutual observer status. We would like to emphasize that JINR is not only a competitor, but also a partner in the development of particle physics. As an international intergovernmental organization, "JINR participated in the construction of the Large Hadron Collider, was and remains an independent party to the memoranda of understanding of the LHC collaborations, being their member as both an institute and a financing institution" ^{[15, p. 168]}.

According to a special resolution, the JINR observer status in the CERN Council was suspended [CERN Response to the Aggression against Ukraine: Council Resolution Concerning the Consequence for Relations between CERN and the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research (JINR) //CERN/3638/Corr. (30 March 2022). URL: https://council.web.cern.ch/sites/default/files/c-e-3638Corr_Council%20Resolution_JINR.pdf (date of access: 08.11.2023)]. In turn, CERN ceases to exercise the rights arising from its observer status at JINR until further notice. In addition, it was decided to suspend the participation of scientists from CERN in all JINR scientific committees and vice versa. All this has found its expression in the suspension and cancellation of all joint activities. Finally, the Council announced that CERN would no longer participate in the new collaboration with JINR until further notice.

As we have already noted, at the March 2022 meeting, the Council outlined the legal consolidation of the institutional break in cooperation with Russia. And, indeed, at its 208th meeting (June 16, 2022), the Council decided on further measures regarding the suspension of international cooperation agreements and related protocols, as well as any other agreements related to participation in the CERN scientific program [CERN Council declares its intention to terminate cooperation agreements with Russia and Belarus at their expiration dates in 2024 (17 June 2022). URL: https://www.home.cern/news/news/cern/cern-council-cooperation-agreements-russia-belarus (accessed 03.11.2023)]. It is necessary to clarify that, according to the decision, the termination of cooperation, which is based on agreements on international cooperation with Russia and Belarus, will occur after their expiration in 2024 [Decision-making in Respect of the International Cooperation Agreement between CERN and the Russian Federation // CERN/3669 (16 June 2022). URL: https://council.web.cern.ch/sites/default/files/c-e-3669_Resolution_Decision_making_RU_June22.pdf (accessed 19.10.2023)].

As such, international cooperation agreements between CERN and various States are usually concluded for five years and automatically extended for the same period, unless one of the parties sends written notice of termination to the other party at least six months before the extension date. The agreement with Russia expires in December 2024, and with Belarus in June 2024. Nevertheless, in its resolution, the Council again demonstrated its willingness to follow a flexible algorithm, indicating that it would monitor the situation very carefully in order to make further decisions [CERN Response to the Aggression against Ukraine: Council Resolution Concerning the Consequence for Relations between CERN and the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research (JINR) //CERN/3638/Corr. (30 March 2022). URL: https://council.web.cern.ch/sites/default/files/c-e-3638Corr_Council%20Resolution_JINR.pdf (date of application: 14.11.2023)].

As follows from the analysis of CERN's sanctions policy, which led to the formation of an appropriate sanctions regime, the logic of sanctions combines more or less radical steps aimed at breaking institutional relations. More radical measures are aimed at JINR. In June 2022, the Council decided to review the future cooperation between CERN and JINR well before the expiration of the current agreement (January 2025). This follows the measures taken at previous sessions of the Council to suspend JINR observer status and to terminate the participation of CERN scientists in all JINR Scientific committees until further notice [Decision-making in Respect of the International Cooperation Agreement between CERN and the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research (JINR) //CERN/3671 (16 June 2022). URL: https://council.web.cern.ch/sites/default/files/c-e-3671_Resolution_Decision_making_JINR_June22.pdf (accessed 19.10.2023)]. This logic of events prompts a critical attitude to the thesis that in modern conditions international scientific and technical cooperation at the level of international intergovernmental organizations is "more difficult to subject to politically motivated unilateral restrictive measures ("sanctions")" ^{[16, p. 22]}.   

Based on the analysis of measures to break institutional relations, it should be concluded that there is a continuation of cooperation between CERN and Russia in some areas. As noted in the expert environment, "in fact, only official relations are suspended, for example, joint conferences, the work of joint councils, committees, etc. And those scientists who are currently conducting scientific research at CERN will continue them" [Medvedev Yu. There is no question of suspending the work of Russian scientists in scientific research at CERN (03/26/2022). URL:https://rg.ru/2022/03/26/o-priostanovke-raboty-rossijskih-uchenyh-v-nauchnyh-issledovaniiah-cern-rechi-ne-idet.html (date of application: 11.11.2023)]. In addition, the leading expert of the Center for International Cooperation and Partnership Mega Science of NUST MISIS, a member of the LHCb collaboration D. Strekalina notes that Russian scientists continue to work at the LHC, and "there is no speculation inside the collaborations with our colleagues. We work on projects together. The human factor has remained the same" [Cit. po: CERN knows that… Europe has established new rules for the publication of articles with the participation of scientists from Russia and Belarus (02/27/2023). URL: https://www.kommersant.ru/doc/5842409 (date of application: 12.11.2023)].

In our opinion, the conclusion that, despite restrictive measures, cooperation continues cannot be absolutely optimistic, because this continuation is carried out "under the curtain". The Council's decisions, while emphasizing a flexible approach, create a situation of uncertainty accompanied by a sense of injustice. As academician G. Trubnikov notes, "we take this decision as a given. We cannot agree or disagree, because this is the majority opinion. We continue to work, and our task is to prove to the world that science can bring nations closer together. In my opinion, Russia should remain at CERN, and the flag should not be removed. Because Russia has been involved there since the 1960s. And it is wrong and unfair to cross out the contribution of money, resources and human intelligence that has been made for almost 60 years" [Cit. po: CERN knows that… Europe has established new rules for the publication of articles with the participation of scientists from Russia and Belarus (02/27/2023). URL: https://www.kommersant.ru/doc/5842409 (date of application: 14.11.2023)]. It seems that the psychological aspects of a situation of uncertainty cannot contribute to effective interaction.

3. Negative consequences of the institutional gaps between CERN and Russia

The forecast regarding the negative results of the termination of cooperation is currently of the most general nature. CERN points out that the scale of human, financial and planned consequences for the ongoing experiments, the implementation of the High-Lumisosity LHC (HL-LHC) project and the second phase of the ATLAS and CMS modernization will depend on the development of the geopolitical situation [Medium-Term Plan for the period 2023-2027 and Draft Budget of the Organization for the sixty-ninth financial year 2023 (GENEVA, September 2022). URL: https://cds.cern.ch/record/2838413/files/English.pdf (date accessed: 15.11.2023)]. However, one thing is clear that the expected contribution of Russia, represented by JINR and other scientific centers, to the implementation of the second stage of the HL-LHC project will not be realized. Of course, this causes damage to global science, which is developing at the level of CERN.       

It should be clearly understood that sanctions against Russia will lead to a decrease in the Russian research potential in the field of fundamental physics, as well as to a reduction in the presence of Russian scientists in the arena of world scientific periodicals. Of course, the work of Russian scientists at CERN continues, but there is a problem with publishing the results of their research. As such, publications are an important moment in the growth of scientific knowledge. Publications indicate the contribution of scientists to a particular subject area. They are also used to share information. Thousands of scientists and engineers participate in the four largest experiments of the LHC. Scientific articles usually indicate all the participants in the project. But under the conditions of sanctions, a difficult dilemma arose, which consisted in indicating or not indicating the authorship of Russian, and equally Belarusian, researchers, as well as information about their affiliation.

Since the scientific results at CERN are the result of the joint efforts of scientists from different countries, some foreign collaborators, driven by sanctions rhetoric, opposed co-authorship with Russian institutions and with individual scientists. According to the model of anti-Russian scientific sanctions, restrictive measures are aimed at state institutions. Therefore, the following option was proposed – to specify Russian and Belarusian scientists, but without affiliation with scientific institutes of Russia and Belarus. The Ministry of Science and Higher Education of Russia saw in this the desire of the Center to avoid excessive politicization of international scientific cooperation [CERN knows what.... Europe has established new rules for the publication of articles with the participation of scientists from Russia and Belarus (02/27/2023). URL: https://www.kommersant.ru/doc/5842409 (date of request: 09.09.2023)]. Some collaborations believe that if you do not specify the affiliation of individual scientists, then you should not specify the affiliation of all participants in a particular project. While the discussion on how to compile a list of authors continued, in March 2022 the number of new works by Russian scientists decreased to zero [Petraki E. Split among scientists: how the conflict in Ukraine interferes with physics. The Guardian: The EU still refuses to publish articles by Russian scientists (01/23/2023). URL: https://inosmi.ru/20230123/nauka-259976748.html (date of access: 09/10/2023)]. At the same time, public versions of more than 100 articles were uploaded to the arXiv preprint server, but both in them and in the materials sent to scientific journals, there was no list of authors and funding organizations. This practice has affected not only Russian but also foreign researchers.

However, within the framework of CERN, it was decided that all publications would contain a complete list of authors and their ORCIDS. The largest scientific collaborations (ALICE, ATLAS, CMS and LHCb) have decided  on how to deal with the publications of scientists from Russia and Belarus. So, if in the past the list of affiliation indications was complete and took up several pages, then from now on the indication was used, for example, "in cooperation with ATLAS". The new rule applies to those articles that have been accepted by journals but have not yet been published. The decision of the collaborations applies to all articles that will be written before the end of 2024. Nevertheless, it was decided not to publish the names of Russian and Belarusian research institutes and funding organizations. In turn, it was confirmed that the remaining scientific institutes, which are represented by researchers from other countries, will continue to be indicated. But the full list of authors, including their affiliation, one way or another, will continue to be provided to the editorial board of journals in a closed format.

This kind of way out of the created situation is widely discussed in the academic environment. Thus, the opinion is expressed that "if all scientists were published without specifying affiliations, the situation would be less discriminatory. And so, anyway, Russian and Belarusian scientists stand out from all the others" [Noorden R.V. LHC Physicists Resolve Stalemate over Russian Authors (February 19, 2023). URL: https://www.realclearscience.com/2023/02/18/lhc_resolves_stalemate_over_russian_authors_882560.html (date of access: 11/24/2023)]. This decision did not have a significant impact on the financing of projects or the awarding of doctoral degrees. However, problems may arise in the future. A strategy for continuing scientific research and accumulating knowledge is quite possible, even without making it public. Indeed, articles without specifying their authors and the names of the institutions in which they work are acceptable within the framework of experiments. But for the careers of scientists and teachers, mentioning their affiliation is extremely important. In addition, funding organizations may refuse further funding if the articles lack metadata. Under the conditions of sanctions, this kind of difficulty has not become particularly acute for Russian scientists, since the lack of publications has not become a significant problem when submitting reports on R&D results to Russian foundations and agencies. As you know, in 2022, the requirements for publications in foreign publications were abolished or relaxed in Russia.

The CERN sanctions are not so drastic compared to the EU sanctions, which mean the complete cessation of Russia's participation in current projects ^[17]. In comparison with other major international projects within the framework of the Horizon 2020 and Horizon Europe programs, the cooperation of domestic scientists in various collaborations continues on a number of projects. With regard to the current situation, the director of the Institute of Nuclear Physics (INP, Novosibirsk) P. Logachev noted the need for continued contacts with CERN, since without Russian specialists it is very difficult to turn on and subsequent operation of important installations [The Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation hopes for continued cooperation with CERN (01/24/2023). URL: https://www.interfax.ru/russia/881996 (date of access: 10/15/2023)]. In this regard, both sides are sympathetic to the organization of business trips of Russian specialists to Geneva. It seems that the arrival of CERN specialists to Russian megascience-class installations is also in demand. Thus, within 1.5–2 years, the growth of fundamental knowledge in the field of high energy physics with the participation of Russia will continue. This is very important for both Russia and CERN.

In this context, there is a need for a forecast regarding the imminent complete rupture of institutional cooperation. The expert community has ideas about the results of such a gap. In particular, the chief designer of the Universat-SOCRATES project, V. Petrov, believes that the gap will affect fundamental physics, but what is the degree of such an impact is a rather complicated question. But one thing is clear – Russia has its own fairly large accelerator base [Science to tear. What does the CERN decision mean for Russian scientists (06/19/2022). URL: https://www.kommersant.ru/doc/5421842 (date of access: 11/28/2023)]. Of course, there are no installations in Russia that are a complete analogy to the LHC: at the national level, their creation is simply impossible. With the termination of Russian scientists' access to the LHC, as well as due to limited access to experimental data obtained on it, it will be very difficult to implement appropriate research directions in the field of fundamental physics. Meanwhile, Russia has its own projects and installations, including those of the megasains class, which will allow the implementation of other areas of fundamental physics. Although, of course, no one will deny the upcoming losses of the Russian side in the field of technological exchange development.        

 From our point of view, sanctions in the field of science are very similar to sanctions in the economic sphere: the party that introduces them also bears certain losses from restrictive measures. It seems that after the complete cessation of cooperation with Russia, CERN will be the loser, since the Russian scientific and technological potential in the field of nuclear physics is very impressive. Apparently, this scientific and technological potential will be realized within the framework of the Chinese circular collider project. As a result, CERN sanctions cannot lead to the "cancellation" of Russia's active presence in the global space of nuclear physics and to a halt in the development of this area in Russia. However, they are not designed for this due to the powerful traditions of the Center in the field of scientific diplomacy.

It is also necessary to take into account that CERN is far from the only global center in the field of fundamental physics. Megascience class installations in the USA, Japan, China and, finally, in Russia itself act as not only its partners, but also competitors. Against this background, the demand for contacts with Russian specialists and scientific institutions will remain not only in the interests of developing global science, but also in the interests of maintaining CERN's global competitiveness. Both sides are interested in continuing cooperation in other forms that have yet to be tested.  

Not only scientific, but also economic sanctions against Russia have a negative impact on fundamental research in the field of high energy physics. CERN consumes about a third of Geneva's average annual energy resources. In 2022, difficulties in its functioning arose due to rising energy prices. This was caused by a reduction in Russian natural gas exports. High energy costs and rising inflation have not only caused uncertainty in the budget planning process [Rabinovic E. Message from the President of the Council of the CERN (2021). P. 4. URL: https://cds.cern.ch/record/2862771/files/Messages.pdf (date of access: 09/18/2023)], but also led to competition among researchers for the time spent working at the accelerator. This forces various laboratories both in Europe and at CERN to adjust their energy policies [CERN to implement additional energy-saving measures for 2022-2023 (September 30, 2022) // https://home.cern/news/news/cern/cern-implement-additional-energy-saving-measures-2022-2023 (date of access: 09/23/2023)]. 

In early September 2022, the head of the CERN Commission on Electricity, S. Claudet, in an interview published in the Wall Street Journal, said that the organization was developing plans to stop some accelerators and even to stop the operation of the collider itself due to the energy crisis in Europe [CERN: The Large Hadron Collider may be stopped due to the energy crisis (09/24/2022). URL: https://ria.ru/20220904/kollayder-1814374593.html (date of access: 05.10.2023)]. The essence of the planned shutdown is to prevent a sudden shutdown in order not to disable the $4.4 billion installation. The Center is considering the possibility of closing other accelerators, as this can reduce electricity consumption by 25%.

CERN shut down its largest accelerator on November 28, 2022, which is two weeks earlier than planned [The Large Hadron Collider was stopped to save energy in the EU (11/28/2022). URL: https://www.dp.ru/a/2022/11/28/Bolshoj_adronnij_kollajde (date of access: 09/06/2023)]. The purpose of such an early suspension is to reduce the load on the power grid and prepare for a price spike and a potential winter shortage. Plans to reduce accelerator operation by 20% in 2023 in order to reduce consumption have continued this situation. The possibility of an early shutdown of the collider was agreed with the electricity supplier, the French company Electricite de France (EDF). Together with EDF, plans have also been developed for reduced-capacity project activity configurations, which will cope with possible load relief in the coming months. In addition, various measures are being developed to save energy at CERN sites (turning off street lighting at night, postponing the start of the heating season for one week, etc.). In this case, we are talking about the social responsibility of the Center.

Of course, CERN, being a major developer of the most advanced technologies, which is simultaneously concerned about the environmental and economic aspects of its activities, is constantly working towards improving its energy efficiency. In general, the adoption of appropriate measures over the past decade has led to a 10% reduction in energy consumption. These measures include the use of various technological solutions, ranging from optimization of cooling and ventilation systems to reconstruction of energy transmission lines.  But, anyway, the operation of the upgraded LHC, as well as the operation of the Future circular collider in the long term, will significantly increase energy consumption and will mean an increase in the cost of experiments. In this regard, there may be problems with their additional financing.

As for the current problems, the Council at its 210th session (December 15-16, 2022) unanimously decided to approve a crisis fee of 2.5% of the basic salary of employees for 2023, which will be compensated by the provision of five days of additional leave [Proposed Package of Measure to Mitigate the Impact of inflation and Electricity price on CERN’s Budget  // Two-Hundred-and-tenth session of the Council (15-16 December 2022). URL: https://council.web.cern.ch/en/content/210 (date of access: 11/21/2023)]. In general, according to the President of the Council, E. Rabinovich, a difficult situation will take place over the next few years [Rabinovich E. Message from the President of the Council (2022).P. 4. URL: https://cds.cern.ch/record/2862771/files/Messages.pdf (date accessed: 10/22/2023)]. Thus, once again it can be seen that in the modern world there is a correlation not only between economic and scientific sanctions, but also there is a reverse negative impact of economic sanctions on the implementation of projects and programs within the framework of international cooperation.           

Conclusion

The analysis carried out in the article allows us to formulate a number of conclusions and outline further research directions.

Firstly, an essential element of the current anti-Russian sanctions in the field of science has become the sanctions regime formed by international research structures of the megascience class. In particular, CERN's sanctions policy has led to the formation of an anti-Russian sanctions regime in the field of fundamental physics. This regime presupposes the suspension of the strategic partnership between CERN and Russia, which not only contributed to the development of this branch of physical science, but also had brilliant prospects up to a certain point in time.

Secondly, the specifics of the CERN sanctions model, which have a political connotation, regarding the participation of Russian scientists and Russian scientific organizations in relevant experiments and projects is that the subject of the imposition of sanctions restrictions aimed at ending institutional ties is the CERN Council, and not certain collaborations.

Thirdly, another feature of the sanctions model is its layering. Unlike the EU, the officially announced termination of cooperation with Russia by the Center did not affect for the most part the current cooperation, because this termination itself was postponed until the end of 2024, when the 2019 basic Cooperation Agreement expires. This decision did not lead to a violation of CERN's obligations as such. However, the provisions of this Agreement affecting the procedure for publishing scientific papers have been violated. Another layer of sanctions imposed on JINR affects the current cooperation on a large scale and violates the Agreement concluded between them. Be that as it may, there are grounds to assert that the moments of scientific diplomacy are preserved.   

Fourth, the CERN sanctions regime confirms the general pattern of unilateral restrictive measures. It lies in the fact that their consequence is negative effects against the party that introduced them. In the case of CERN, this means that a future break with Russia will weaken its technical and research potential, which will lead to a decrease in the level of competitiveness compared to installations where experiments are conducted and will be conducted in the future in the United States, China, Japan and, finally, in Russia itself. At the same time, such a gap will allow Russia to focus on the development of other areas of fundamental physics based on existing Russian facilities and functioning international collaborations. This will lead to a diversification of research in modern physics. 

The research conducted in the article contributes to the development of the theory of scientific sanctions and forms a new subdirectory in its composition. It involves studying the model of scientific sanctions imposed by international research structures of the megascience class (XFEL, FAIR, ESRF, ITER, etc.). The study of sanctions imposed by the latter on the participation of Russian scientists in international projects will create a basis for comparing the sanctions regimes initiated by them. This will allow us to form larger-scale ideas about scientific sanctions as politicized measures that negatively affect the growth of fundamental knowledge within the framework of global science.                                                                        

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