International relations - rubric History of international relations

Abstract: The subject of the study of international relations environmental development is a complex of historical and political factors integrated into international relations on environmental protection and aimed at prevention of climatic destabilization of the planet, prevention of extensive development and the negative consequences of anthropogenic interference with the biosphere. The aim of the work is to elicit the reasons and ways of popularization of the concept of environmentalism on the international level in the XX-XXI centuries in the orderly process of international relations development, as well as to identify the consequential risks to the international political system. In the course of the study the author used a method of analysis of legal sources and a record of meetings at the highest level. With the help of inductive and deductive techniques the study compares environmental concepts in different periods of international relations development. The analysis of thematic international conferences and multilateral treaties is conducted. The historical sequence of international relations development in the field of nature protection is determined. The practice of international ecological concepts integration in the territory of the leading world powers is compared. The scientific novelty of the research is determined by consideration of the current stages of implementation and modernization of the UNFCCC provisions and the dynamically developing agendas of the parties’ annual conferences. The results revealed probability of negative application of the environmental standards in the form of interference with the sovereign foundations of statehood with regard to the leading countries. The author marks a positive impact of peaceful partnership in the sphere of environment, and its unifying role in the international community. These conclusions can be applied to further analysis of implementation of the conception of sustainable development in practice and in discussions at the annual conferences of the UNFCCC parties, as well as in teaching practice for students of the "International relations" field of study.

Keywords: climate change, the Paris Agreement, ecohumanism, environmentalism, ecology, nature protection, the UNFCCC, the concept of sustainable developmen, environment, COP

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0641.2019.4.31266

Abstract: The goal of this article consists in determining the key approaches existing in Harold Macmillan’s government towards solution to the Berlin issue during the crisis of 1958-1961. This will allow filling in the picture of the British part in the cold war, as well as development of the British-Soviet and the “special” British-American relations. The author defines the object of this research as the foreign policy of Great Britain during 1958-1961, while the subject is the policy of the conservative cabinet of Harold Macmillan regarding the problem of West Berlin. This work represents an attempt to fill in certain gap in the Russian historiography and objectively analyze the policy of Harold Macmillan’s government on regulation of the second Berlin crisis. The scientific novelty of this research is defined by the fact that new documents from British national archive are introduced into the scientific discourse for the first time, which were not previously used in research literature. The main conclusions consists in the fact that British government was searching for a compromise with the USSR in an attempt to resolve the Berlin problem. Position of the conservative cabinet was based on the goal to maintain the unity of the Western Bloc, but in closed discussions, the British government was leaning towards a moderate approach, such as possibility of recognition of de facto East Germany, which corresponded with the general course of Harold Macmillan’s government aimed to betterment of relations with the USSR.

Keywords: Eisenhower, Khrushchev, Lord Home, Lloyd, Macmillan, UK foreign policy, second Berlin crisis, Kennedy, Berlin Wall, Gromyko

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0641.2023.1.39208

Abstract: The study examines Nigerian subregional diplomacy: study of Nigeria’s role in promoting West African Institutions The study focuses on Nigeria’s relations with West African institutions such as the Lake Chad Basin Commission, the Gulf of Guinea Commission and the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS). The authors consider in detail Nigeria’s national interests vis-à-vis West African institutions and Member States. To achieve the objective of the study, the authors pay particular attention to Nigeria’s bilateral relations with neighbouring States and cooperation with African institutions. The study is based on the theory of political realism, which implies constant competition among States defending their national interests. In the process of studying this problem, the authors apply institutional, analytical and problem-chronological methods. The main conclusions of the study are the establishment of Nigeria’s role in the settlement of border and territorial disputes, which enabled the state to interact and cooperate with its neighbours, the importance of Nigeria’s contribution to the peacekeeping of the region, Identifying the stability of Nigeria’s foreign policy towards both Africa as a whole and neighbouring States, analysing the main problems of the West African region, which is the basis of Nigeria’s subregional diplomacy: insecurity, political instability and economic imbalance. Moreover, the authors provide critical analysis of Nigeria’s institutional cooperation. The relevance of the study is due to the growing political and economic influence of Nigeria on the African continent.

Keywords: Economic Community, African Union, Anticolonialism, Leadership, ECOWAS, West Africa, Subregional Diplomacy, Nigeria, Mutual Interests, West African Institutions

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0641.2018.4.27722

Abstract: The subject of the research is the cooperation between China and Kazakhstan in the field of education from the moment when diplomatic between these two countries have been established. The aim of the research is to provide a review and summarize the main aspects of the educational cooperation between China and Kazakhstan since 1992 till 2018. The author of the article describes the role and place of educational cooperation in the relationship between these two states and analyzes legal acts and regulations that have been issued in the field of education adn signed by both countries. The researcher also analyzes such aspects of their cooperation as the increase in the number of exchange students in China and Kazakhstan, acceleration of the education integration processes in regional organisations and the spread of their languages and culture. The researcher has applied the interdisciplinary approach (history, international relations, etc.) and methods and principles of historical research. This ensured the systemacity, validity and objectivity of research. The scientific novelty of the research is caused by the fact that the author of the research summarizes the facts of cooperation between China and Kazakhstan in the field of education for a 30-year period. This is an understudied theme of research despite the growing cooperation between the countries. As a result of the research, the author concludes that educational cooperation between these two countries have achieved significant benefits, however, there is still a number of problems faced by the countries in the process of their cooperation.

Keywords: Kazakh language, Confucius Institute, education integration, Shanghai Cooperation Organization University, Kazakhstan, China, education, humanitarian cooperation, Sino-Kazakh relations, Chinese

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0641.2017.4.24575

Abstract: The subject of the research is the agreements and treaties between Russia and China as well as other states (France, Manchukuo, etc.) that have ensured the strategic presence of our country in East Asia. The object of the research is Russian interests in this region. The author of the article pays special attention to the contents of aforesaid treaties regarding Russian interests both in security and construction of The Russian World which was mostly expressed in parts devoted to Russia's jurisdiction. The methodology of the research implies contextual analysis of treaties and agreements on Russian concessions, Kwantung Province and Sino-East Railway in which one of the parties was Russia. For the first time in the academic literature the author of the article attempts to systematise international treaties and agreements that involven the Russian Empire/Soviet Union as well as to carry out their contextual analysis in order to define the mechanisms that ensured Russia's presence in one of the strategically important regions, Far East. The author of the article concludes that unlike other participants of such relations, Russia has been ensuring its presence only peacefully and taking into account interests of all other parties concerned.

Keywords: international treaty, Far East, Sino-East Railway, Kwantung Province, concessions, East Asia, security, strategic presence, Russian world, foreign policy

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0641.2019.1.28942

Abstract: The article is devoted to the need to develop a new British-USSR policy faced by Winston Churchill after the conservatives won the parliamentary election of 1951. In her research Gorelova demonstrates differences in approaching the aforesaid task by the prime minister and foreign service officers at Foreign Office. By analyzing the correspondence between Winston Churchill and Presidents Harry Truman and Dwight David Eisenhower, Gorelova proves that the USA had a certain influence on the foreign policy of the Great Britain already in early 1950s. In her research Gorelova has applied special methods of historical research such as the narrative method that allows to successively reconstruct approaches of the Great Britain to their relations with the USSR in 1951 - 1953; histrorical genetic method that reveals the sources of the cold war; and comparative method that allows to demonstrate peculiarities of the Great Britain and USA policies towards the USSR. The novelty of the research is caused by the fact that for the first time in the Russian historiography, based on the analysis of the British National Archives, Gorelova reconstructs the foreign policy of the Great Britain in relation to the USSR for the period since October 1951 till June 1953. The main conclusion is that Winston Churchill's initiative to establish relatinos with the USSR through top level negotiations did not have adequate consideration at Foreign Office whose officials had only the cold war in their mind. For them, positive changes in the British-Soviet relations would create a threat for the West military and political integration which would, in its turn, give advantages to the USSR. From their point of view, bilateral relations with Moscow would be even more threatful because could create difficulties in the British-American relations.

Keywords: Cold War, conservative government, Molotov, US-Soviet relations, British-American relations, Eisenhower, Foreign Office, British-Soviet relations, UK foreign policy, Malenkov

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0641.2018.1.25298

Abstract: In his research Barabanov describes participation of international actors (EU, USA, Russia) in negotiations regarding the status of Kosovo, reveals the mechanisms of that participation (Control Group and The Three formats) and emphasizes the prevailing role of external forces (but not Serbians or Kosovans) in the process. The author of the article describes a chronological order of negotiations regarding the status of Kosovo, analyzes the main documents that define vectors of these negotiations and contain relevant provisions on the final regulation of the issue. The author studies new reference sources and analyzes the problem from the point of view of universal history applying interdisciplinary approach and comparative method. Barabanov pays special attention to the definition of the status of Kosovo by representatives of Euro-Atlantic actors and their views on international participation in the region. The author demonstrates how the leaders tried to change it based on the Bosnian model which would mean the transfer of functions from United Nations to EU and NATO. The author reveals the unilateral and biased attitude of the West to the problem of the status of Kosovo. Western states try to structure the negotiation process so that the United Nations Security Force recognizes the independence of Pristina. The author of the article offers some original ideas (including the idea about the intermediate role of 'Contant Group Guidelines Regarding Regulation of the Status of Kosovo' that views the question about the status of Kosovo as debatable. The conclusions made by the author based on associated documents evidently prove that the thesis about Ahtisaari plan corresponding to the Resolution of the United Nations Security Force No. 1244 as well as facts of violations from the side of Western countries that later recognized self-proclaimed independency of Kosovo and their international rights.

Keywords: Vitaliy Churkin, Three, Contact Group, Martti Ahtisaari, Ahtisaari plan, UN, Serbia, Kosovo, EU, USA

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0641.2018.4.27810

Abstract: The foreign policy of Nigeria has indisputably proven some homogeneity with the concept of Afrocentrism. Facts have shown that the country’s foreign policy has been very consistent in considering Africa as a centerpiece in spite of successive administrations and the varied systems of government it has experienced. Outlines, principles and objective embedded in the policy from the time of the first Prime Minister Tafawa Balewa who ruled from 1960 when Nigeria gained independence from the British, to the present administration of President Muhammadu Buhari have remained, owing to the country’s faithfulness to contributing to Africa’s development. In this accord, Nigeria has clung to the strong holds of self-determination and self-government in matters that touch its relationship with other countries, both regional and sub-regional. Having adopted the policy of non-alignment, Nigeria has stood in resistance to the external influence while maintaining diplomatic relations with them and concentrated on the integration of African countries. At the period of the country’s shift from Afrocentrism as core to its foreign policy to the direction of “Citizen Diplomacy” then to investment and economic co-operation, Nigeria never lost focus on African unity, economic diplomacy and decolonization of neighboring states. The present article reveals the details of Nigerian foreign policy, its influence on the country itself and Africa as a whole.

Keywords: Nigeria, Afrocentrism, centerpiece, Africa, diplomatic relations, contribution, peacekeeping, Nigeria's leadership, foreign policy, neighboring countries

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0641.2023.3.43841

Abstract: Cooperation in the field of science and education has always been one of the key directions in the development of relations between China and the United States. The object of study in this paper is the Sino-American relations. The subject of the study is the interaction and cooperation between China and the United States in the field of science and education in the period 1969-1993. The purpose of the study is to assess the Chinese-American cooperation in the field of science and education in 1969-1993. The author examines the evolution of interaction in the field of science and education between China and the United States, identifies the factors that influenced cooperation in this area. The novelty of this study lies in a comprehensive assessment of the development trend of Chinese-American cooperation in the field of science and education based on an analysis of the achievements and problems of such cooperation in the period 1969-1993. The system method made it possible to consider the trend of cooperation in the field of science and education between China and the United States based on the wide use of sources. The author concludes that political stability was a necessary condition for cooperation in the field of science and education, and despite the asymmetry of partnership in this area, Sino-American cooperation in this period has achieved significant results.

Keywords: Richard Nixon, Deng Xiaoping, Cold War, PRC, United States, Soviet Union, scientific and educational cooperation, education, science, Sino-American relations

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0641.2022.4.39023

Abstract: The study of this article focuses on the policy of Japanese Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi (2001-2006) to establish the State as a great power. The subject of the study is selected aspects of this policy: rightconservatism, educational reforms, amendments to the constitution of Japan, military reforms, diplomatic activity in relation to the US, the UN and the Asia Pacific. The author pays special attention to the emergence of the political conjuncture that prompted Prime Minister Koizumi to carry out a series of reforms, and focuses on the transition from Japan’s economic weight to the political one during the premiership of Junichiro Koizumi. The study is based on the theory of political realism, namely, the expression of the national interests of the State in the international arena, such as national security, the interests of the national economy or the maintenance of world order. Similar political processes can be observed in Japan during the premiership of Junichiro Koizumi. In the process of research analytical method, problem-chronological and institutional are widely used. This choice is primarily due to the object and subject of the study. The author describes the course of Junichiro Koizumi: the whole set of measures and reforms is fairly comprehensive and at the same time radical. The author points out that Koizumi’s reforms have not been completed and have served as guidelines for subsequent prime ministers. The relevance of this study is conditioned by the increased political weight of Japan in both APAC and world politics; moreover, the attitude to Junichiro Koizumi’s course is polar: as P.V. Kulneva points out "On the one hand, the great-power policy of Junichiro Koizumi has become a reason for fear of a possible revival of Japanese militarism and nationalism; on the other hand, Japan’s policy of gaining political weight consistent with its economic power, is fully justified and is highly positive".

Keywords: APAC, Yoshida Doctrine, rightconservatism, Yasukuni, Great Power course, Japan, Junichiro Koizumi, UN, USA, ODA

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0641.2019.1.29049

Abstract: The subject of the rsearch is the studies of Central Asia in China. The author of the research focuses on the history, origin and deveopment of Chinese centers for Central Asia studies. The author lists the leading research centers and their academic journals and analyze the main areas of Central Asian research at the modern state. The rationale of the research is caused by the all-sided reinforcement of relations between the People's Republic of China and Central Asian states and thus, the need to clarify how China interprets the history of Central Asian states and understands their role in modern international relations, what diplomatic policy China has been following in relation to Central Asian countries, etc. The research is based on the analysis of original Chinese publications on Central Asian countries. At the end of the research the author concludes that Central Asian studies have a long history in China, however, officially they have been created only recently and the 1990s was marked with a new stage of these studies.

Keywords: China, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, central Asia, institutes of Central Asian studies, Shanghai Cooperation Organization, SCO

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0641.2017.3.24202

Abstract: The research subject is Russia’s and the world community’s de jure recognition of independence and sovereignty of Abkhazia. The author analyzes the key prerequisites of recognition and the consequences for Russia. Special attention is given to Russia’s policy in the field of conflicts between Georgia and Abkhazia and Georgia and Ossetia. The author defines the reasons, which caused the negative reaction of the world community towards the decision of the Russian leadership to recognize independence and sovereignty of Abkhazia. The research methodology is based on the system, historical, historical-comparative, comparative-political and geopolitical approaches. The research is based on the analysis of a bulk of sources; come of them haven’t been published before. Russia’s recognition of Abkhazia as a sovereign and independent state was preceded by the Georgian-Abkhaz conflict and the Georgian-Ossetian war of 2008. The double standard policy, supported by the world community, is not acceptable for Russia. Russian leadership’s support of the Abkhazian people’s struggle for independence worsened relations between Russia and the western countries and strengthened its military and political positions on the Southern Caucasus.

Keywords: sovereignty, world community, international recognition, Kosovo, Georgian-Ossetian war, Georgian-Abkhaz conflict, Georgia, Abkhazia, Russia, independence

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0641.2021.3.36447

Abstract: This article explores the cooperation of Spain and Russia in the area of education due to implementation of the joint degree program between Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia and University of the Balearic Islands). The study of the bilateral dialogue within the framework of educational policy and outlining its prospects is relevant since Spain is the strategically important partner for the Russian Federation. Analysis of the potential of university cooperation between the two countries at the present stage is also necessary for expanding the presence of Spain and Russia in the humanitarian sphere abroad, and creating a positive image of both countries among foreign partners. The novelty of this research lies in the detailed analysis of the joint Master’s program and postgraduate education implemented between Peoples' Friendship University of Russia and University of the Balearic Islands), its current state and development prospects, as well as the challenges faced in the process of implementation of this project. It is noted that the joint degree program between the Russian and Spanish universities are an integral part of their cooperation in the sphere of education. The author establishes that the difference in academic degrees in the Russian and Spanish systems of education remains a crucial and unresolved issue, which obstructs the bilateral partnership in this area.

Keywords: PhD, master's degree, double degree programs, Bologna process, internationalization, higher education, cooperation, academic mobility, Russia, Spain

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0641.2018.2.26244

Abstract: The author gives a detailed analysis of the changes in assessment of the USSR by the Intelligence community of the United States during the period from 1989 until 1991 on the basis of documents from the archives of the CIA and the National security archive (USA). The main goal is to analyze the information and analytical reports of the U.S. Intelligence community to expand the understanding of how the ideas about the USSR changed in the Intelligence community in the period from 1989 to 1991. The object of study is the analytical work of the iIntelligence community of the United States and the subject is the analysts' assessment of the situation in the USSR in 1989 - 1991. The author pays particular attention to consideration of possible scenarios, as well as to differences in approaches to forecasting the situation in the Intelligence community. The novelty of the study lies in the involved sources which were introduced to scientific circulation for the first time and in the emphasis of the study on the assessment of the situation in the USSR by the Intelligence community. The author concludes that the information contained in the analytical reports differs significantly depending on the Department wherein they were made, and on the time of writing. The analysts' conclusions were not confirmed by the historical process, and the myth of the US Intelligence services' omniscience and their role in the collapse of the USSR is under considerable doubt.

Keywords: U.S. – Soviet relations, analytical work, CIA, U. S. Intelligence Community, B. N. Yeltsin, M. S. Gorbachev, G. H. W. Bush, Cold War, Collapse of the USSR, Republics of the USSR

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0641.2024.2.70569

Abstract: Since the end of 1980th Austria has significantly been changing the model of its military-political course and taking into consideration neutral status of the State concentrates major efforts on activity in special international organizations including their military actions. In this regard the object of research is the military-political model of Austrian Republic in postbipolar epoch. Consequently, the subject of the article is changes and crucial determinations of Alpine Republic military-political line at the end of 1980th – 2020th. To cover this object-subject area problems and ways of neutrality transformation in 1990th – beginning of 2000th are analyzed. Along with that special attention is focused on Official Vienna’s activity in special international organizations in security sphere (UN, OSCE, EU, NATO) mostly diplomatic and legislative issues in first two cases and participation in military and training missions. The historical-genetic and comparative methods which allow to notice historic backgrounds and to compare Austrian efforts in security field are used. The scientific novelty of the research implies wide set of sources in German and an attempt to unite concrete Austrian steps in integral system. Crucial conclusions are determination of motives and features of Austrian policy transformation in security field. Its first characteristic is narrowing the interpretations of the neutral status with the subsequent opportunity to use national armed forces in the settlement of armed conflicts outside Austrian borders. The second consequence is description of interaction and two-component model of the UN, OSCE, EU and NATO instruments use. The first two are applied for promotion initiatives in regional conflicts settlement and foundation of legislative base for disarmament and avoiding militarization of other spaces. The last two provide the use of military measures for stabilization of conflict regions with avoiding of direct use of bundesheer.

Keywords: KFOR, SFOR, military training missions, Preview conference, neutrality, UN, OSCE, NATO, EU, Austria

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0641.2022.4.39110

Abstract: This article is devoted to the study of the issue of leadership on the African continent, which is the object of the study, because, since 1963 Nigeria is a member of the Organization of African Unity (now the African Union), the Economic Community of West African States since 1975, and the United Nations since October 7, 1960. The subject of the study is Nigeria’s foreign policy on the African continent, as since independence Nigeria has pursued a number of foreign policy goals: the eradication of colonialism and other external forms of exploitation, The oppression and marginalization of Africans. The main conclusion of the study is that Nigeria’s role in the formation of AU and ECOWAS, was in conformity with its national interest and foreign policy pursuit, which was designed to promote regional integration and cooperation within West Africa and Africa in general. The role of Nigeria is fundamental for African organizations and their leadership prospects. Historically, Nigeria's Afrocentric foreign policy and its national interest have made it possible for Nigeria to pursue African oriented policy. The authors applied a number of methods to carry out this research: historical, legal and analytical. The historical method allows us to give the chronology of Nigeria’s leadership role in Africa from 1960 to 2020. The legal method permitted the analysis of the legal instruments, particularly from different constitutions, treaties since Nigeria’s independence till date. The analytical method consists of the analysis of the evolution of different transformations that occurred in the African continent from 1960 to 2020.

Keywords: African Union, anti-colonialism, UN, ECOMOG, ECOWAS, Afrocentrism, Africa, Leadership, Nigeria, Organisation of African Unity

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0641.2018.4.27812

Abstract: The subject of the research is the relations between Russia and Yemen and foreign policy of Russia towards Yemen. The researcher touches upon such aspects of the Russian-Yemeni relations as bilateral political and economic relations, development of the legal basis of modern Russian-Yemeni relations and the role of Yemen in Russia's Near East policy as well as the attitude of Russia to the Yemeni crisis. Al-Akvaa analyzes the attitude of the Russian Federation to the Yemeni crisis, in particular, Russia's policy that supports the neutrality and readiness to cooperate with all parts of the conflict which makes Russia a possible intermediate that may help solve the conflict. In the course of the research the author has used a set of numbers including analysis of researches and publications, descriptive narrative and comparative historical methods. The novelty of the reseasrch is caused by the fact that the author analyzes the history of the relationships between Russia and Yemen at this stage as part of both overall Russia's Near East Policy and bilateral political and economic relations. The researcher focuses on the development of relations between Russia and Yemen after the collapse of the USSR including the relations that rae based on the historical Soviet-Yemeni relations. The author also offers to discuss the opportunity of Russia's participation as an intermediate in the management of the Yemeni conflict.

Keywords: Soviet Union, Near East, Yemeni crisis, Russian Federation, foreign policy, Yemen, Arab countries, Arabian Peninsula, bilateral relations, conflict

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0641.2020.1.32419

Abstract: The core of the Palestinian political regime takes its roots in the course of the struggle for independence against British occupation government that attempted to establish Jewish State in the territory of Western Palestine. This research examines the history of Palestine under the British Mandate after the World War I. The object of this article is Palestine in the time of creation of post-colonial system of international relations; while the subject is the political-legal aspects of Palestinian political regime during British colonization period of 1917-1948. The article is based on the political-retrospective analysis of regional situation. The authors were able to determine the factors that contributed to the emergence of Arab-Israeli conflict; reveal the state of Palestinian internal political forces and actors, their impact upon the political regime of Palestinian State; as we;; as well as identify the potential conflict risk zones within the Arab leadership. Analysis of the regional situation allows formulating approaches towards forecasting the course of events.

Keywords: British colonization, The Constitution Of Palestine, Mandate for Palestine, Balfour Declaration, Palestine, Palestinian Political Regime, Arab League, UN resolution, Palestinian National Authority, Israel

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0641.2018.4.27962

Abstract: The subject of the research is the role of E. Primakov in Russia's external policy as viewed by French researchers. Trifonova analyzes Frency researchers' evaluations of E. Primakov's activity in late 90s and his influence on Russia's foreign policy in general. She focuses on monographs devoted to the newest period of Russia's history as well as researches of the foreign policy of the Russian Federation in late 1990s - early 2000s. The main research methods include historical, narrative, and comparative methods of historical research. The rationale of the research is caused by the fact that for the first time in the academic literature the author analyzes the views of French researchers on the foreign policy of the Russian Federation of late 1990s. Primakov is a famous scientist and politician who held different state positions, headed the Russia's Foreign Intelligence Service and being assigned for the position of the ministry of foreign affairs managed to fundamentally change the direction of external policy of Russia in early 1990s. E. Primakov managed to spin around the focus of Russia's foreign policy towards the East and post-Soviet countries. That was noted by French researchers, most of them believed E. Primakov to be one of the main makers of contemporary Russia's foreign policy. The main conclusion of the research is that E. Primakov's activity made a significant influence on Russia's foreign policy of late 1990s and development of this policy in recent years.

Keywords: former Soviet republics, CIS, multipolarity, Russian Federation, French researchers, foreign policy, Middle East, NATO, ASEAN, West

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0641.2020.2.32857

Abstract: The subject and key goal of this research consist in analysis of the impact of “American exceptionalism” concept upon U. S. foreign policy at the initial state of George W. Bush presidency. It is demonstrated how the phenomenon of “American exceptionalism”, being an intrinsic part of messianic idea of the United States, found its reelection in the foreign policy course of George W. Bush, particularly in the doctrine that virtually outlined the contours for the “global war against terrorism” and subsequent military operation in Iraq in 2003. In order to achieve the indicated goal, the author sets two tasks: deconstruction of the phenomenon of “American exceptionalism”, and demonstration of how these components were integrated into the Bush’s doctrine. Foreign sources and historiography allowed demonstrating the evolution of the phenomenon of “American exceptionalism” and its conceptual grounds. For tracing the patterns of the impact of this phenomenon upon the U. S. foreign policy course, the author applied historical-genetic method. The use of specific-historical analysis illustrated the influence of the phenomenon of “American exceptionalism” upon the U. S. foreign policy course overall, and the doctrine of George W. Bush in particular. The conclusion is made that the phenomenon of “American exceptionalism” gradually shifted from the field of U. S. domestic policy towards foreign policy; and the September 11 events prompted final consolidation of “American exceptionalism” in the U. S. foreign policy. The novelty of this work is defined by the fact that impact of the phenomenon of “American exceptionalism” upon establishment of the doctrine of George W. Bush is analyzed in detail for the first time.

Keywords: military factor, George W. Bush, american exceptionalism, Bush Doctrine, EU, USA, International relations, terrorism, internationalism, regional studies

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0641.2020.3.33013

Abstract: This article reviews the role of Anglo-German Naval Agreement of 1935 in escalation of crisis trends of the Versailles system. Leaning on the British Russian archival documents, which recently became available for the researchers, the author analyzes the reasons and consequences of conclusion of this agreement between the key European democratic power and Nazi Reich. Emphasis is placed on analyzing the moods within the political elite of the United Kingdom. It is proven that the agreement became a significant milestone in escalation of crisis trends in the Versailles model of international relations. It played a substantial role in establishment of the British appeasement policy with regards to revanchist powers in the interbellum; policy that objectively led to disintegration of the created in 1919 systemic mechanism, and thus, the beginning of the World War II. The novelty of this work is substantiated by articulation of the problem. This article is first within the Russian and foreign historiography to analyze execution of the Anglo-German Naval Agreement based on the previously unavailable archival materials. The conclusion is made that this agreement played a crucial role in the process of disintegration of interbellum system of international relations. Having officially sanctioned the violation of the articles of the Versailles Treaty of 1919 by Germany, Great Britain psychologically reconciled to the potential revenge of Germany, which found reflection in the infamous appeasement policy. This launched the mechanism for disruption of status quo that was established after the World War I in Europe. This resulted in collapse of the architecture of international security in the key region of the world, rapid deterioration of relations between the countries, and a new world conflict.

Keywords: Policy of appeasement, Hitler, Nazism, Second World War, Versailles system, International relations, The Anglo-German naval agreement, League of Nations, Navy, Diplomacy

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0641.2018.2.26634

Abstract: The subject of the study is public diplomacy of China. Public diplomacy as one of diplomacy forms is increasingly attracting China's attention. This form of diplomacy refers to various methods of external communication (with the exception of government diplomacy) including bilateral exchanges between the government and the people. The aim of public diplomacy is to promote a better understanding of the values and institutions of the home country, as well as to enhance its image in the eyes of the international public opinion, which in turn has an influence over the policy pursued by foreign governments towards this state. The author discussed the relations between the Confucius Institute and public diplomacy of China using the methods of analysis, observation and description. The main conclusion of the study is that the Confucius Institute is directly related to public diplomacy of the PRC, moreover, it can be considered its important component. The Confucius Institute and the Chinese language teaching abroad are an important element for the access of Chinese culture to the world, as well as a powerful platform for public diplomacy.

Keywords: Going out strategy, humanitarian exchange, Chinese culture spreading, promote Chinese language, public diplomacy of China, Chinese language education, Chinese language, PRC, Confucius Institute, Public diplomacy

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0641.2014.1.10062

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0641.2014.1.63753

Abstract: The article concerns the reaction of the US society to the crisis moments in the international relations in 1938–1939. The author analyzes the evaluations of the German aggression in Europe by the US leaders and by the press. The American society in 1920–1930s had two tendencies in respect to the threat of war: “isolationists’ on one hand, and “internationalists’ on the other hand. In this situation the President of the USA F. D. Roosevelt, who paid much attention to the European and Middle Eastern affairs. The first large European crisis of 1938 was due to occupation of Austria, which had a considerable impact on the American society. The formation of the evaluation of Fascist threat was influenced by the mass media and the opinions of the leading politicians, among whom the position of the personnel of the Department of State was the most prominent. The Secretary of State Cordell Hall stated before the March crisis of 1938 that Germany became a domineering force in the continental Europe, and taking this factor into account (the Secretary of State was addressing the Ambassador of Germany H. H. Dieckhoff) it is necessary to establish the further way — either to militarization and conflicts, or to sustaining the existing order in Europe.

Keywords: international relations, politics, the USA, Germany, conflicts, society, threat, war, interests, values.

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0641.2023.3.43614

Abstract: Humanitarian assistance is one of the most important criteria for evaluating the effectiveness of foreign policy of a state. The provision of humanitarian aid is currently a key area of Japan's international activities and foreign policy. As one of the world's largest humanitarian aid donors and the oldest member of the OECD's Development Assistance Committee, Japan provides assistance in practically all areas of the world's conflicts and natural and anthropogenic hazards. Official Development Assistance (ODA) and humanitarian aid as its subspecies are considered as a practical tool for Japan's international humanitarian activities. Japan's experience in the field of humanitarian assistance is the object of research by both Japanese and foreign authors who evaluate Japanese humanitarian assistance in different ways. A distinctive feature of modern Japan's humanitarian assistance is an integrated approach to providing aid, with an emphasis on cooperation with international organizations and the attraction of available funds from various government departments and organizations. Japan plays a leading role in the field of humanitarian assistance in the international arena and takes an active part in shaping the international agenda in this area.

Keywords: foreign policy principles, state policy, international organizations, JICA, OECD, foreign policy, humanitarian aid, humanitarian assistance, ODA, Japan

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0641.2014.1.10352

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0641.2014.1.63754

Abstract: This article contains theoretical analysis of Soviet and post-Soviet economic systems. The author attempted to prove that the Soviet capitalism model was obviously Ricardo-like in character, while the post-Soviet model of authoritarian state capitalism has obvious Marxist features. Within the Ricardo paradigm (with all of the other conditions even) not only salaries and profits move in opposite directions. Each of the parts of the article includes tables and then explanations to them. Following Adam Smith, David Ricardo, who lived at the time of industrial revolution in England, considered that the only goal of any production is consumption, and it concerns the producing class of the capitalist society — the hired workers. It does not mean that the main motive of the Ricardo capitalism is well-being of the working class, which produces riches and capital, rather, it is riches and capital themselves, belonging to capitalists, who make decisions on their use, movement and transition into other forms. According to Ricardo, the higher living (consumption) standard of all of the classes in a capitalist society may be achieved only in the far away future by maximizing profits of the capital owners, and current lowering of the salary of the working class.

Keywords: international relations, politics, capitalism, Ricardo, Marx, economics, history, state, social structure, class.

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0641.2014.1.10353

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0641.2014.1.63755

Abstract: The war required a temporary departure from the forms of recruiting workforce for public works used in time of peace. The methods of peaceful times (contracts with collective farms and enterprises) could not guarantee the necessary number of workers in the conditions of war. In order to guarantee sustainable production growth and strengthening of the military economy, it was necessary to use the forms of involving labor resources in accordance with the wartime conditions. A serious form of workforce mobilization was the formation of the construction battalions and work strings out of the persons obligated for military service but who were temporarily or permanently unfit to be drafted to the army. Workforce mobilization for agricultural purposes was organized by the mobilization departments of the Council of People’s Commissars of the Union and Autonomous Republics, regional and district departments. In some autonomous republics, regions and districts there were commissions for the organized recruitment of workforce and also the divisions for the economic placement of evacuated persons. It turned out that different divisions implemented the same function. It complicated the reporting, distribution and rational use of labor resources. Mobilization of the workforce was aimed at the maximal and most efficient use of the cadres, their redistribution in favor of military production and heavy industry, introduction of obligatory overtime work at the factories and cancellation of vacations (both basic and additional), mobilization and allocation of workers and officials for permanent work in the military and cooperating industry for the entire period of war; mobilization of the city and village population capable of doing work and not already involved in social production in order to do work in the spheres of industry, construction and transportation; general work obligation, allowing to involve all of the population capable of doing work into providing for the military need; allocation of necessary cadres: qualified workers, specialists, and officials in the most crucial industrial spheres providing for the military through reservation, that is, through freeing them from drafting to the army; mass education of new workers, their advanced training at the place of work, and at schools and colleges for worker reserve; teaching specialists at the higher education institutions; organization of work and payment with the due regard for the specific wartime conditions — support and development of creative initiative, competitions for more productive work, working time economy and achieving the goals with less workers.

Keywords: international relations, politics, labor resources, the Great Patriotic War, the USSR, mobilization, legislation, the Soviet people, the persons obligated for military service, labor front.

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0641.2018.1.25192

Abstract: The subject of the study is relations between the USSR and Italy in the sphere of aviation in the period of 1922-1938. The author considers a number of aspects of these relations, such as the first Italian flights to the Soviet Union and the return visits of the Soviet delegations to Italy, as well as procurement of Italian aircraft and aircraft equipment by the Soviet Union. The author devotes much attention to the work of Italian aviation specialists in the Soviet Union, such as Umberto Nobile, Felice Trojani and Roberto Bartini, and refers to the sources in the Italian language. The methodological basis of the study is a comparative-historical method which contributes to identification of the general and the particular aspects in development of Soviet-Italian relations in the field of aviation at various stages. The interdisciplinary approach of the work allows the author to go beyond the technical aspects of aviation events and to include their political, ideological, cultural and propaganda components. The scientific novelty of the study is conditioned by the need for a comprehensive study of the Russian and Italian sources that cover such a strategically important sphere of relations between the two states as aviation. The author introduces new sources to scientific circulation, for instance, archival materials from "The Umberto Nobile Documentation Centre" in Italy (which have not been translated to Russian and have not previously been studied in Russia), as well as the memoirs of Italo Balbo, Felice Trojani and Umberto Nobile, which contributed to substantial extension of knowledge about the role of Soviet-Italian relations. As a result, the authors draws a conclusion that, contrary to the popular belief, the ideological confrontation was by no means an obstacle to productive and mutually beneficial cooperation in the aviation sphere in the said period.

Keywords: aviation history, Soviet-Italian relations , Italy , Italo Balbo , Umberto Nobile, Felice Trojani, Roberto Bartini, flights, airship construction, international relations

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0641.2023.4.68697

Abstract: The subject of the study is Soviet historiography about Egypt's relations with the USSR. Soviet-Egyptian relations have a long history and have passed an unprecedented stage in their life. During the Cold War, Egypt was the main ally of the Soviet Union in the Middle East. Therefore, the prepared studies on the history of relations between the two countries at that time occupy an important place in Russian science. In this article, the author seeks to present the historical background, goals, objectives, methods and features of the USSR's policy towards Egypt, as well as its development in the 60s and 70s of the twentieth century. The novelty of the research lies in the coverage of various criticisms, comments and points of view of researchers, writers, politicians and diplomats who devoted their works to the goals of Soviet foreign policy towards Egypt during the Arab-Israeli conflict. The author of the article also spoke about the course of relations between the two countries, explaining their strengths and weaknesses. The article highlights the mistakes and crises of political and military relations and their impact on both countries, which helps to avoid future mistakes between Egypt and the Russian Federation. The history of the USSR is the basis of the history of modern Russia.

Keywords: Yom Kippur War, USA, Sadat, Brezhnev, Nasser, Six-Day War, Egypt, USSR, Middle East, Arab-Israeli conflict

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0641.2024.1.70160

Abstract: The article examines the development of Azerbaijani-Persian relations in 1918–1920, when a newly formed state called Azerbaijan Democratic Republic appeared on the world map. Before the declaration of independence, the territory of Azerbaijan was a part of the Russian Empire, which received Azerbaijani lands as a result of the Russian-Persian wars in the first half of the 19th century. The Turkmenchay Treaty of 1828 defined the border separating Azerbaijan and Armenia from Persia and consolidated the division of Azerbaijan between the Russian Empire and Persia. As a result, the territory of Azerbaijan was divided into two parts - northern and southern, called Caucasian and Persian Azerbaijan respectively. The article is an attempt to fill the gap in the analysis of Azerbaijani-Persian relations in 1918-1920 in the domestic science. Historical, narrative and system methods were used as the main methods in the work on the article. The relevance of the article is conditioned by the possibility of revision of international treaties of historical significance. In particular, modern Iran has started revising the Turkmenchay Treaty of 1828. The revision of previously of earlier treaties may pose a threat to regional international relations and alter the territorial integrity of the states involved in the process. Understanding the historical development of the countries is important for building a foreign policy line at the present stage, including for Russia. Based on an analysis of foreign policy documents of Azerbaijan Democratic Republic, the author comes to the conclusion that Azerbaijani-Persian relations were ambiguous: if initially Persia declared its territorial claims to Azerbaijani lands, then Persia’s policy soon turned in the opposite direction, and the countries signed a number of agreements on foreign policy cooperation. The most important result of bilateral cooperation was the de jure recognition of Azerbaijan by Persia.

Keywords: recognition, independence, foreign policy, Paris Peace Conference, the Turkmenchay Treaty, the Russian Empire, Persia, Azerbaijan, territorial claims, diplomacy

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0641.2017.1.22138

Abstract: The author considers the main causes and peculiarities of the process of transformation of the foreign policy of Egypt in the early 1950s. The chronology of the study is determined by the beginning of the new stage of the conflict between Egypt and Israel, prompted by political events in Egypt in 1952 and the subsequent rise to power of G. Nasser. Egypt aspires to leadership in the Arab world; it takes the central place in the conflict between the world powers in the Middle East. The topicality of the research is determined by the process of Egypt’s choosing the guarantor of its foreign policy among the world powers. The research methodology is based on the system method. The author applies the historical-genetic and historical-comparative methods. The author focuses on the process of Egypt’s foreign policy shift towards the USSR. This reorientation was the result of Egypt’s understanding of the hopelessness of the negotiation process with the western countries in the sphere of trade, economic and military cooperation. The author proves that the world power’s intentions to serve their own national interests promoted tensions between the parties to the conflict.

Keywords: Soviet Union, France, Great Britain, the United States, Israel, Egypt, the Middle East , foreign policy, the Suez Canal, Free Officers Movement

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0641.2019.1.25356

Abstract: The object of the research is the so-called Löwenwolde's Treaty or the Treaty of Three Black Eagles that was concluded between Austria, Russia and Prussia in Berlin on December 2/13 of 1732. The provisions of the Treaty started to be visibly violated soon after it had been concluded. This allows the historiographers to think of it as a fake document created by Vienna and Petersburg in order to involve the King of Prussia into the Polish Succession treaty which none of the parties intented to ratify. Based on the historiography and documents of the Russian Academy of Sciences, the author of the article traces back the history of negotiations from the treaties of 1730 till the ratification of the treaty in 1733. The author has applied the historical genetic and comparative methods. As a result of the negotiations of 1730 - 1732, a Portugese infant Manuel became a candidate for the Polish throne. Preliminary negotiations were an important milestone. The final document did not mention the kurprinz of Saxony or the Piast dynasty which meant that the allies had come to a compromise. The support of the Hohenzollern in Kurland was supposed to coerce Prussia to cessions in the case of the Julich-Berg heritage but Berg negotiations were broken which gave the emperor the right to ask Anna of Russia to postpone ratification and to try to soften the king's stand. Polish articulates were left in force and Austria and Russia started to implement them. The treaty allowed the change of infant for another candidate which also made it possible to turn to the prince-elector of Saxony. The withdrawal of the king from the allies was caused by the failure of the Prussia-Saxony negotiations. The Threaty lost the power after Prussia declared neutrality and Carl VI refused to invade Poland.

Keywords: Austria-Russia relations, Polish Succession, Karl Gustav Loewenwolde, 18th century diplomacy, diplomatic history, Polish question, Treaty of Three Black Eagles, Löwenwolde's Treaty, Prussia-Russia relations, Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0641.2015.2.12846

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0641.2015.2.66182

Abstract: The article presents the analysis of fighting on the Caucasus Front during World War I. The author analyzes the most significant operations held by the Caucasian Army under the command of Yudenich, the conditions and factors which determined their success. The article defines the reasons of the Caucasian front disintegration and Russia’s withdrawal from the war. The European theatre is considered to be the main theatre of the First World War due to the bitterest strife, but it was far from being the only one. The methodology of the research is based on the system, structural-functional, comparative-historical, comparative-political, geopolitical and cultural-civilizational approaches, and the methods of analysis, synthesis, induction and deduction. The First World War fighting had gone far beyond the borders of the European continent and defined other theatres of war. One of those theatres was the Middle East theatre and the Russian Caucasus Front where it fought against the Ottoman Empire.

Keywords: international relations, foreign policy, the World War I, Caucasus Front, the Russian Empire, the Ottoman Empire, the Entente, conflict, Yudenich, the straits.

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0641.2014.2.10749

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0641.2014.2.64951

Abstract: The issue of return to Russia of the Soviet prisoners of war, the USSR citizens, who were forcibly brought to Germany, and the refugees is one of the least studied issues in the historical literature. Up to the late 1980s the documents on this issues were state secret in Russia. The lack of the sources and objective information caused a lot of myths around this issue. It concerns a number of publications both in the West and in Russia. Often the facts were selected tendentiously and interpretation was biased. Currently the researches have gained access to the previously closed sources, among which special place should be provided for the documents of the Soviet of Ministers (Department of the Plenipotentiary of the Soviet of the People’s Commissars) of the USSR on the Issues of Repatriation, which was formed in October of 1944. Its head was Colonel General F.I. Golikov, who was the former head of the military intelligence. These materials served as the main sources for the author, when this article was prepared. Additionally, for his analytical work the author used the documents of the State Defense Committee, Administration Department of the SPC (Soviet of Ministers) of the USSR, the Secretariat of NKVD (MIA) of the USSR, the Department of Special Camps (Control and Filtering Camps) of the NKVD of the USSR.

Keywords: international relations, foreign policy, the USSR, the 2nd World War, repatriation, the SDC, the NKVD, the prisoners of war, security, the SPC.

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0641.2014.2.11296

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0641.2014.2.64952

Abstract: On January 31, 2014 in Tokyo there was another round of regular consultations at the level of Vice-Ministers of the Foreign Affairs of Russia and Japan. The Russian side was represented by I.V. Morgulov and the Japanese side was S. Sugiyama. In the course of consultations the main attention was paid to the issues of furthering the Russian – Japanese cooperation, including closer political dialogue, wider scope of trade and economic ties, development of contacts in the practical spheres and cultural exchanges in the light of implementation of agreements achieved at the meetings of heads of the two states in 2013. There was an exchange of opinions regarding a number of topical international issues, including the security guarantees and lowering the conflict potential in the Asian-Pacific region. According to the assignments of leaders of two states – Russia and Japan there was a discussion of concluding a Treaty of Peace between Russia and Japan and its historic aspects. The parties have agreed upon holding the next round of consultations in Moscow. Specific time shall be agreed upon via the diplomatic channels.

Keywords: international relations, foreign policy, Russia, Japan, political stability, Treaty of Peace, conflict, interests, values.

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0641.2013.3.62926

Abstract: When starting research of any kind, one should first establish the basic cognition principles as a group of the most general methods and settings, which are applicable in all cases of cognitive activities. We call methodology and principles of “organic communism” of V.V.Bervi-Flerovskiy conditional, since they are based upon personal understanding of the matters in question by an author. The academic and scientific literature have stricter requirements for methodology. The conditional character of these principles is also dependent upon duality of statements of this thinker, which is sometimes mistakenly referred to as “lack of understanding” or “lack of knowledge” of historical reality, social laws, etc.

Keywords: political science, international relations, ideology, organic communism, politics, Bervi-Flerovskiy, philosophy, utopia, concept, Shirinyants.

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0641.2014.3.12107

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0641.2014.3.64956

Abstract: This article presents a polemic against the statement that back in 1944 the Soviet leaders had an intention to deport the Ukrainian population, which previously lived in the situation of German occupation. The author provides the facts, which leave no place for the doubts that the so-called Decree of the NKVD of the USSR and the People’s Commissariat of Defense of June 22, 1944, which was published in the Ukrainian press in 1992, and which supposedly provided for deportation of all of the Ukrainians, who have previously lived in the situation of Ukrainian occupation, is a counterfeit document. Due to the absence of any proving documents and obvious contradictions with the facts, there are doubts in the truthfulness of the statement of Nikita Sergeevich Khrushev at the XX Assembly of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in 1956 that I.V. Stalin did not move the Ukrainians only for the reason that there “were too many of them, and nowhere to move them to”.

Keywords: international relations, foreign policy, history, deportation, counterfeiting, Ukrainian population, fake, political provocation, authenticity, security.

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0641.2014.3.10747

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0641.2014.3.64954

Abstract: Some 20 years ago the genocide of worst kind was taking place just one hour flight from Brussels. That time, assassination of different kind from the one of 1914 has enveloped Sarajevo. While massive European ignorance turned Bosnia (and the Union of different peoples – Yugoslavia) into a years-long slaughterhouse, the Maastricht dream was unifying the Westphalian world of the Old continent. Today, two decades later, Atlantic Europe is a political powerhouse (with two of three European nuclear powers, and two of five permanent members of the UN Security Council, P–5), Central Europe is an economic powerhouse, Russophone Europe is an energy powerhouse, Scandinavian Europe is a bit of all that, and Eastern Europe is none of it. No wonder that as soon as serious external or inner security challenges emerge, the compounding parts of the true, historic Europe are resurfacing again. Formerly in Iraq (with the exception of France) and now with Libya, Sudan, Mali and Syria; Central Europe is hesitant to act, Atlantic Europe is eager, Scandinavian Europe is absent, Eastern Europe is bandwagoning, and Russophone Europe is opposing. Did Europe change (after its own 11/9), or it only became more itself?

Keywords: First World War, politica, unification, geopolitics, Bosnia, Sarajevo, Europe, Westphalian Ummah, the international relations, international conflict

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0641.2013.4.9397

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0641.2013.4.63344

Abstract: It was 75 years ago, when on September 29, 1938 Hitler, Chamberlain, Daladier and Mussolini gathered for a meeting and in the night of September 30, 1938 after a short period of negotiations and speeches the Munich Agreement was signed by the governments of the Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, the Great Britain and France. It was one of the shameful pre-War deals, and on this tragic day, when the gates were opened to the 2nd World War and the sovereign Czech Republic disappeared from the political map. The haste of the aggressor showed itself in the fact that it was just four hours after the meeting in Munich, when the Prime — Minister of the Czech Government received the text of the Munich Agreement, under which 1/5 of the Czech territory was transferred to Germany. And on September 30, 1938 the Anglo-German Declaration of 1938 and the Franco-German Declaration of 1938 were signed, standing for the nonaggression pact between the French and English Governments and the Hitler’s Germany and regulation of all of the issues. Therefore, starting from September 30, 1938, the world was doomed for the war.

Keywords: international relations, foreign policy, Russia, geo-politics, political instability, the Munich conspiracy, the 2nd World War, political history, interests, values.

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0641.2013.4.9749

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0641.2013.4.63345

Abstract: This article is devoted to the analytic note, presented to the Secretary General of the CPSU Central Committee Y.V. Andropov. The sharp confrontation between the Soviet Union and the coalition of the Western states in the late 1970s made the Soviet leaders face a number of matters in the sphere of improvement of the Soviet foreign policy. The attack on the Western positions posed a huge pressure on material and moral resources of the state, overstepping its real abilities. In order to guarantee the Communist Messiah expansion and wage the “Cold War” the USSR spent 15 to 30 percent of the GDP (compared to 5 per cent of GDP for the USA). It threatened to undermine the economic fundamentals of the state. The Soviet government violated the fundamental foreign policy principle, as formulated by von Clausewitz, providing that the established foreign political goals should strictly conform with the material resources and international situation. However, instead of easing the tension in the relations with the West, and lowering the pressure on the economies of the Soviet Union and its partners in the Warsaw Treaty Organization, in the 1970s the Kremlin chose to intensify the tension.

Keywords: international relations, politics, the USSR, geo-policy, Andropov, diplomacy, ideology, security, values.

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0641.2014.4.11808

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0641.2014.4.65639

Abstract: After the Crimean peninsula, according to the results of the people’s referendum, became a part of Russia, some countries in the West openly started talking about political and economic sanctions against the Russian Federation. In particular, one of the measures against Russia was the quick reduction of forecasts for the credit ratings of Russia. For instance, the largest international rating agencies lowered their forecasts for the credit rating of Russian banks and large companies, they did it synchronously and concurrently, as if acting under orders. How painful this step taken by the rating agencies will be for Russia, for consequences may await Russia and the global community in this regard – this is what this paper is devoted to. As noted by A. V. Manoilo, “political sanctions are, first of all, a wave of moral reproach and reprimand which must fall on Russia and make it feel ashamed”. It appears that shame should become a normal state for Russia, not only because of what was done, but in general.

Keywords: international relations, foreign policy, Ukraine, Crimea, rating, rating agency, state, conflict, sanctions, Russia.

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0641.2014.4.12212

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0641.2014.4.65640

Abstract: This article is devoted to the history of training in Russia of professionals for Ethiopia during the period from the end of the 19th to the beginning of the 20th century. The author pays special attention to the role played by Russian Red Cross in establishing the diplomatic relations between our two countries. When Bolsheviks came to power in Russia, the diplomatic relations between Russia and Ethiopia were suspended. The official Addis Ababa sympathized for the upholders of the tsarist regime and when the news about the execution of emperor Nikolas II and his family reached Ethiopia, a special memorial service was arranged in St. George’s church in Addis Ababa which was attended event by the Patriarch of Ethiopian Christian church, public officials and diplomats from western countries, including the temporary charge d’affaires of Russia P. K. Vinogradov. Methodologically, this research is based on the systematic, structural and functional, and comparative historical approaches, methods of analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction. The formal relations between the two countries were frozen up until 1943. Ethiopia did not send any more students to Russia, this practice was resumed only in 1960s. However, Russia remains one of the first European country in history which started training professionals for Africa.